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Progressivism and the Age of Reform
Backwards Planning Curriculum Units
Betsy Hedberg, Writer
Dr. Aaron Willis, Project Coordinator
Justin Coffey, Associate Editor
Kerry Gordonson, Editor
Amanda Harter, Graphic Designer
Social Studies School Service
10200 Jefferson Blvd., P.O. Box 802
Culver City, CA 90232
http://socialstudies.com
access@socialstudies.com
(800) 421-4246
From 'Progressivism and the Age of Reform'. Product code ZP407.
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Social Studies School Service
© 2009 Social Studies School Service
10200 Jefferson Blvd., P.O. Box 802
Culver City, CA 90232
United States of America
(310) 839-2436
(800) 421-4246
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Permission is granted to reproduce individual worksheets for classroom use only.
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN 978-1-56004-383-6
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Table of Contents
Introduction.................................................................................................................... iv
Lecture Notes.................................................................................................................. S1
Student Handouts........................................................................................................... H1
Backwards Planning Curriculum:
Progressivism and the Age of Reform Backwards Planning Activities............ 1
Project #1: The Role of the Muckrakers........................................................... 4
Project #2: Progressive Era “Timeline” Performances ..................................... 9
Project #3: What to Do About the Trusts? A Class Forum............................. 14
Progressivism and the Age of Reform Multiple-Choice Quiz........................ 23
Progressivism and the Age of Reform Multiple-Choice Quiz Answer Key... 27
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How to Use This Unit
Backwards planning offers an innovative yet simple approach to meeting curriculum goals; it
also provides a way to keep students engaged and focused throughout the learning process.
Many teachers approach history instruction in the following manner: they identify a topic
required by state and/or national standards, they find materials on that topic, they use those
materials with their students, and then they administer some sort of standard test at the end of
the unit. Backwards planning, rather than just starting with a required instructional topic, goes a
step further by identifying exactly what students need to know by the end of the unit—the so-
called “enduring understandings.” The next step involves assessment: devising ways to
determine whether students have learned what they need to know. The final step involves
planning the teaching/learning process so that students can acquire the knowledge needed.
This product uses backwards planning to combine a PowerPoint presentation, activities that
involve authentic assessment, and traditional tests (multiple-choice and essay) into a complete
curriculum unit. Although the materials have enough built-in flexibility that you can use them in
a number of ways, we suggest the following procedure:
1. Start with the “essential questions” listed on slide 2 of the PowerPoint presentation (these
also appear in the teacher support materials). Briefly go over them with students before getting
into the topic material. These questions will help students focus their learning and note taking
during the course of the unit. You can also choose to use the essential questions as essay
questions at the end of the unit; one way to do this is to let students know at the outset that one
of the essential questions will be on the test—they just won’t know which one.
2. Next, discuss the activities students will complete during the unit. This will also help focus
their learning and note taking, and it will lead them to view the PowerPoint presentation in a
different light, considering it a source of ideas for authentic-assessment projects.
3. Present the PowerPoint to the class. Most slides have an image and bullet points
summarizing the slide’s topic. The Notes page for each slide contains a paragraph or two of
information that you can use as a presentation script, or just as background information for your
own reference. You don’t need to present the entire PowerPoint at once
: it’s broken up into
several sections, each of which concludes with some discussion questions that echo parts of the
essential questions and also help students to get closer to the “enduring understandings.” Spend
some time with the class going over and debating these questions—this will not only help
students think critically about the material, but it will also allow you to incorporate different
modes of instruction during a single class period, offering a better chance to engage students.
4. Have students complete one or more of the authentic-assessment activities. These activities
are flexible: most can be completed either individually or in groups, and either as homework or
as in-class assignments. Each activity includes a rubric; many also have graphic organizers. You
can choose to have students complete the activities after you have shown them the entire
PowerPoint presentation, or you can show them one section of the PowerPoint, go over the
discussion questions, and then have students complete an activity.
Permission granted to reproduce for classroom use only. © 2009 Social Studies School Service. (800) 421-4246. http://socialstudies.com
iv
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Permission granted to reproduce for classroom use only. © 2009 Social Studies School Service. (800) 421-4246. http://socialstudies.com
v
5. End the unit with traditional assessment. The support materials include a 20-question
multiple-choice quiz; you can combine this with an essay question (you can use one of the
essential questions or come up with one of your own) to create a full-period test.
6. If desired, debrief with students by going over the essential questions with them again and
remind them what the enduring understandings are.
We are dedicated to continually improving our products and working with teachers to develop
exciting and effective tools for the classroom. We can offer advice on how to maximize the use
of the product and share others’ experiences. We would also be happy to work with you on ideas
for customizing the presentation.
We value your feedback, so please let us know more about the ways in which you use this
product to supplement your lessons; we’re also eager to hear any recommendations you might
have for ways in which we can expand the functionality of this product in future editions. You
can e-mail us at access@socialstudies.com. We look forward to hearing from you.
Dr. Aaron Willis
Chief Education Officer
Social Studies School Service
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S1
This political cartoon shows
President Theodore Roosevelt as
a hunter who’s captured two
bears: the “good trusts” bear
he’s put on a leash labeled
“restraint,” and the “bad trusts”
bear he’s apparently killed.
Progressivism
Progressivism
and the Age of Reform
and the Age of Reform
The Progressive Era was a period in the late 19th and early 20th centuries during which
social, economic, and political reforms aimed to end the dominance of large businesses and
wealthy business owners and increase equity and opportunity for the less affluent members of
American society, including recent immigrants. Although the era had no firm beginning or
ending dates, historians generally consider it to have lasted from around 1890 to sometime in
the 1920s.
The Progressive reform movement began in response to the rapid industrialization that had
been sweeping much of the country since the Civil War. This had enriched the country as a
whole but had created increasingly impoverished classes of workers, who often lived in urban
slums and worked in unsafe factories. The rapid pace of economic growth had provided
opportunities for new immigrants but at the same time had created dangerous working
conditions for many people who took advantage of these job opportunities. Political
corruption had also increased, particularly in the cities.
Progressive leaders came primarily from the white middle- and upper-classes and aimed to
make changes at the local, state, and national levels. Journalists, social workers, politicians,
and other Progressive reformers became involved in a multitude of reform initiatives,
including legislation, urban sanitation and beautification efforts, social services, and
labor organizations.
This presentation examines Progressive Era events and reforms from the late 1880s until the
Federal Reserve Act of 1913.
1
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S2
Essential Questions
• Why did the Progressive Era begin? What social, economic, and
political factors contributed to the movement toward Progressive
reform?
• How did the issues prominent during the Progressive Era, and the
changes that occurred then, affect the lives of immigrants, African
Americans, and women?
• How did the social and moral values of white middle- and upper-
class citizens influence Progressive Era reform agendas?
• In what ways did Progressive reforms depend on the work of
individual activists? In what ways did they depend on the
participation of larger groups of people?
• What impact did political leadership have on shaping Progressive
reforms?
2
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S3
The Gilded Age
• 1870s and 1880s
• U.S. as world’s main
industrial power
• Industrialists and
financiers formed
trusts
• “Robber barons”
• Criticism of unfair
practices and poor
worker treatment
A cartoon criticizing “robber barons” such as
Gould and Vanderbilt for their treatment of
workers
The Gilded Age of the 1870s and 1880s brought about dynamic economic growth.
During this time, the United States became the world’s foremost industrial power.
Increasing industrial activity, particularly in the Northeast, attracted immigrants to
work in factories and enriched the industrialists and financiers who owned and funded
the manufacturing companies. These wealthy individuals included Cornelius
Vanderbilt, J.P. Morgan, John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, and others, many of
whose names remain prominent today in the names of corporations, universities,
foundations, and other institutions.
During this era, many corporations consolidated into trusts, or mega-corporations that
controlled nearly all of the manufacturing and distribution in a particular industry. For
example, financier J.P. Morgan consolidated the steel industry into U.S. Steel.
Financial markets also consolidated, with their center at New York City’s Wall Street.
Critics complained that trusts held too much power in the country’s economy. These
critics called the trusts’ owners “robber barons” (a reference to medieval lords who
illegally collected tolls from ships on the Rhine River), reflecting disapproval of the
anti-competitive business practices the trusts had used to amass their immense wealth
and power. Some critics also began to publicize the unfair treatment of workers,
including extremely low wages, long hours, and unsafe working conditions in
many factories.
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S4
Standard Oil and Trusts
• Founded by John D.
Rockefeller in 1867
• Controlled 90% of U.S.
oil-refining and soon almost
the entire petroleum industry
• Other industries followed
his model
• Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)
had little impact for a decade
after its passage
John D. Rockefeller
One of the largest and most powerful trusts of the late 19th century was John D.
Rockefeller’s Standard Oil, founded in 1867. Rockefeller used his influence to
purchase oil companies around the nation, consolidating the industry until, by 1880,
he controlled 90% of the nation’s oil-refining capabilities. Rockefeller then purchased
companies that produced and sold petroleum products, thus allowing Standard Oil to
control virtually the entire petroleum industry. The company could set the price of oil
and determine details of its supply and distribution. This near-monopoly made it
extremely difficult for any other companies to compete.
Rockefeller inspired other entrepreneurs to develop their own corporations along a
similar business model. The meat-processing and -distribution industry and the sugar
industry, for example, both modeled themselves after Standard Oil.
During the late 19th century, the dominant cultural view of laissez-faire dictated that
the government should have a very limited role in the private sector’s affairs. Despite
this attitude, opponents of Standard Oil and other industrial monopolies managed to
press the government for some regulations even before 1900. In 1890, for example,
Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act, which prohibited “unlawful restraint and
monopolies.” Despite its intentions, this law was poorly enforced and had little impact
on trusts until Theodore Roosevelt’s presidency in the first years of the 20th century.
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S5
The Panic of 1893
• Overspeculation during the
1880s
• Banks, railroads, and other
companies failed
• Unemployment,
homelessness, and financial
ruin
• Reform-minded Americans
began to organize
The New York Stock Exchange
during the Panic of 1893
During the 1880s, many companies overextended themselves by speculating on
business opportunities that did not yet exist. This was particularly true for the railroad
companies, which built more railroads than the country needed. The Philadelphia and
Reading Railroad filed for bankruptcy in February 1893, ushering in a severe
economic downturn.
News of the souring economy led many people to withdraw their money from banks,
meaning that the banks could no longer offer credit. It became increasingly popular
to take money out of banks and use it to buy gold, which was safer than keeping it
in a bank. As the federal government’s gold reserves declined, the nation neared
bankruptcy, and President Grover Cleveland had to borrow gold from financier
J.P. Morgan. Many banks failed, and other railroads and manufacturing companies
collapsed as well. Unemployment skyrocketed. Many people lost their homes and
life savings.
Within the context of this economic depression the Progressive Era began. As the
economy stagnated, middle-class reform-minded Americans increasingly organized in
opposition to such problems as corruption in politics, overcrowding, and poor working
conditions. They called for increased governmental regulation of businesses, and tax
reforms that would benefit poor people, including recent immigrants.
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S6
Progressivism: An Overview
• “Making progress”
• A variety of organizations and interests
• Not a cohesive movement
• Three broad categories: social, economic,
and political reform
The word “progressive” generally refers to an attitude or spirit of moving forward
with new ideas, actions, or opportunities (i.e., “making progress”). During the late
19th and early 20th centuries, a variety of organizations and interests arose to combat
the perceived injustices of the Gilded Age. This movement collectively became
known as the “Progressive movement.” Rather than being a single, cohesive
movement, Progressivism was an amalgamation of various interests and goals, mainly
falling into the three broad categories of social, economic, and political reform.
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S7
Progressivism: State and Local
• Many changes could be more
easily attained
• Local: high schools, playgrounds,
less corruption, better sewage,
beautification, settlement houses
• State: reduced overcrowding,
safety measures in factories,
workers’ compensation, restricted
child labor, minimum wage
• Wisconsin and La Follette
Robert La Follette
Progressives desired many changes that they found they could more easily attain locally or
statewide than nationally; thus, new Progressive state and local laws and programs vastly
outnumbered national ones.
Local initiatives commonly included the expansion of high schools to promote education
beyond the elementary level, playground construction, and reorganization of city
governments to increase efficiency and reduce corruption. Many cities elected Progressive
mayors to help curb corruption in city politics. Progressive reformers succeeded in improving
the condition of streets and sewer lines, adding parks, and otherwise making cities more
attractive. Settlement houses (described in an upcoming slide) also helped champion
Progressive causes in the cities.
Many states passed laws regulating the numbers of people who could live in a given space,
reducing overcrowding. Other laws mandated that factories take certain safety precautions,
instituted workers’ compensation, and restricted child labor. Minimum-wage laws also took
effect in several states.
Wisconsin governor Robert La Follette put his state at the forefront of Progressive reforms.
During his tenure (1900–1905), the state legislature enacted laws to dissolve monopolies,
increase taxes on railroads, preserve forests, and establish direct primary elections (i.e., voters
could directly choose candidates). La Follette continued working toward Progressive reforms
as senator. Successive governors further regulated the railroad and insurance industries,
established the country’s first workers’ compensation program, mandated factory safety, and
limited women’s and children’s work hours.
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S8
Women and Progressive Reforms
• Women became much more
involved in social and political
causes
• Mainly middle- and upper-class
women
• Aimed to increase “moral
behavior” of lower classes
• Organizations such as YWCA
and National Consumers League
A YWCA poster
During the Progressive Era, women began working for social and political causes in
much greater numbers. Many women, primarily from the middle and upper classes,
joined Progressive organizations and became leaders in reforms regarding child labor,
urban sanitation, education, and other social issues.
Many women felt a moral obligation to become involved in these causes. For
example, some felt outraged upon learning about the indignities of child labor and
unsanitary conditions in tenements (discussed in future slides). Female (as well as
male) Progressive reformers also frequently viewed reform as a way of increasing the
“moral behavior” of immigrants and the working class, whom they often viewed as
coarse and indecent. In this regard, women’s Progressive reform work was closely
linked to the temperance (anti-alcohol) movement and other moral causes.
Many women joined organizations such as the Young Women’s Christian
Association (YWCA) and the National Consumers League to promote Progressive
reforms. Women also became leaders of the settlement-house movement and the
social-work profession.
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S9
Muckrakers
• Journalists who exposed
corruption and social
injustices
• Term coined by Theodore
Roosevelt
• Works published in popular
magazines
• Riis, Steffens, Tarbell, Baker
et al.
Magazines like this one often
published muckraking articles
Jacob Riis was one of the first major writers in what came to be known as
“muckraking.” President Theodore Roosevelt coined the term “muckraker” in 1906 to
describe the work of journalists who exposed the problems of business and
government corruption, child labor, prostitution, racial discrimination, and other
issues. While Roosevelt used this term negatively, feeling that these writers only
focused on the negative rather than on the positive, the term became associated with
the work the writers did to increase public awareness of urban problems.
Popular magazines, including McClure’s and Cosmopolitan, published many of the
muckrakers’ articles, giving them a wide audience and exposing the general public to
the problems that the muckrakers addressed.
Other famous muckrakers included Lincoln Steffens, Ida M. Tarbell, and Ray
Stannard Baker. These three journalists worked for McClure’s until 1906, when they
left to help create The American Magazine.
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S10
Jacob Riis
• Photographed and wrote
about conditions in tenements
and factories, and on the
streets
• How the Other Half Lives
(1890)
• Set the stage for Progressive
urban reforms
The reform movements of the Progressive Era gained momentum as conditions for the
poor and working class became increasingly publicized. One of the earliest and most
influential individuals to inform the middle and upper classes as to the lives of the
country’s urban poor was journalist Jacob Riis. As a police reporter for New York
newspapers, Riis visited many impoverished neighborhoods, mainly those housing
recent immigrants. He photographed and wrote about the conditions he witnessed in
tenement homes (large, crowded apartment buildings), on the streets of urban slums,
and in factories.
Riis used a camera with flashlight powder, enabling him to take photographs in dark
tenement rooms. He also wrote essays documenting the conditions he saw. When
newspapers and magazines published his photographs and writings, the public gained
a better understanding of the impoverished conditions in which many New Yorkers
(and residents of other cities) lived, in stark contrast to the opulent lives of
industrialists and financiers.
In 1890, Riis published his major work How the Other Half Lives, which included
many of his photographs and essays. By enabling members of the middle and upper
classes to witness the lives of “the other half” (the urban poor) of American society,
Riis’s work helped set the stage for many Progressive urban-reform initiatives.
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S11
Riis: From How the Other
Half Lives
Long ago it was said that “one half of the world does not know
how the other half lives.” That was true then. It did not know
because it did not care. The half that was on top cared little for
the struggles, and less for the fate of those who were underneath,
so long as it was able to hold them there and keep its own seat.
There came a time when the discomfort and crowding below were
so great, and the consequent upheavals so violent, that it was no
longer an easy thing to do, and then the upper half fell to
inquiring what was the matter. Information on the subject has
been accumulating rapidly since, and the whole world has had its
hands full answering for his old ignorance.
Discussion questions: Give students time to read the excerpt, which comes from
Riis’s introduction to his book.
•What are the two “halves” Riis referred to? Who was on top? Who was on the
bottom? (The middle and upper socioeconomic classes of society compose the top
half; the lower classes and poor immigrants make up the bottom half.)
•Why did the upper half “[fall] to inquiring what was the matter”? (The upper half
became uncomfortable with the large numbers of people in the bottom half, whom
they perceived as violent and whom they felt were crowding the cities.)
•Which half did Riis most empathize with? (He most empathized with the
bottom half.)
•At the time Riis wrote this paragraph, the problems he described continued to exist in
New York. Why do you think he wrote this introduction from the perspective of the
future? What message might he have been trying to convey to his audience? (He was
hoping his writings and photographs, along with other progressive initiatives, might
lead to this scenario in the future. He might have hoped his audience would awaken to
a clearer understanding of the class differences in society and a desire to do something
to improve this situation.)
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S12
Riis: Photographs
“Dens of Death”
“Five Cents Lodging,
Bayard Street”
Discussion questions: Give students time to view the photographs, then ask the following:
•What does each photograph show? (“Dens of Death,” left: dilapidated tenement buildings
crowded together in an urban slum; “Five Cents Lodging, Bayard Street,” left: several men in
what appears to be the sleeping quarters of a very small and crowded room—actually an illegal
boarding room in a tenement—with walls that look old, dirty, and crumbling, and clothing
trunks tightly packed onto a shelf.)
•What do these photographs reveal about living conditions in the tenements? What do they tell
you about what it might have been like to be a tenement resident? (The tenements were not in
good condition, and life there might have been difficult. Some of the buildings’ sides and roofs
appear ready to collapse. The men are living in extremely close quarters, with little room to
move and high risk of spreading infection.)
•Why do you think Riis chose to take each of these photos? Why did he publish them? (To
demonstrate to middle- and upper-class Americans the squalor in which New York City’s poor
lived. By raising awareness, he hoped to foster initiatives to change conditions there by passing
new laws, enforcing existing ones, increasing social outreach to poor immigrants, and
expanding their economic opportunities.)
•Imagine that you were a middle-class American seeing these images for the first time. What
might your reactions have been? (Middle-class Americans would likely have been shocked by
the conditions these photographs revealed, not having visited these neighborhoods or known
anyone living there.)
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S13
Immigrants
• Job opportunities and
religious freedom
• Southern and eastern
European and Jewish
immigrants
• Ethnic enclaves in
large cities
• Poor conditions
• Faced prejudice and
discrimination
An immigrant neighborhood, circa 1900
Throughout the Progressive Era, immigrants poured into the country, attracted by growing job
opportunities as well as by the promise of religious freedom. American steamship and railroad
companies in Europe actively promoted emigration. Most immigrants during this period settled
in cities to take advantage of the economic opportunities of the Industrial Revolution.
Immigrants during this period increasingly came from southern and eastern Europe rather than
from western Europe. Southern Europeans (particularly from Italy) and eastern Europeans
generally left their home countries due to poor economic conditions and political instability.
Steamship companies encouraged them to journey to the U.S., promising better economic
opportunities across the Atlantic. Jewish immigrants also sought to escape religious persecution
in eastern European countries.
Immigrants during the late 19th and early 20th centuries typically inhabited urban ethnic
enclaves, neighborhoods where most people came from the same country. Here they set up
stores, religious gathering places, and social networks. These tended to be the least affluent
parts of town and often lacked efficient sanitation systems. These neighborhoods became very
crowded due to increasing immigration, and urban infrastructures could not accommodate the
number of people. Immigrants also faced prejudice and discrimination by native-born residents.
Many immigrants found jobs in the growing numbers of factories, often doing work that
American-born people would not. Working conditions tended to be poor, with wages generally
very low.
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S14
Jane Addams and Hull House
• Settlement houses
• In 1889, Addams and Starr
founded Hull House in
Chicago
• A community center for the
poor
• Offered classes, concerts,
lectures, clubs
Jane Addams
Immigrants living in cities’ ethnic enclaves benefited from the establishment of
settlement houses. Settlement houses had developed in London in the mid-19th
century to serve as social-service centers for the urban poor. Supported by wealthy
donors, the settlement houses provided meals, shelter, education, and other activities.
In 1889, Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr founded Hull House on Chicago’s West
Side. Inspired by the London settlement house Toynbee, Hull House served as a
community center for many of Chicago’s poorest residents, including many
immigrants. It also attracted reformers who wanted to help improve conditions and
opportunities for the urban poor. Addams became one of the most prominent figures
in the Progressive movement.
Hull House offered classes in a variety of subjects, concerts and lectures, and clubs for
both children and adults. Its leaders established the first playground and bathhouse in
Chicago and helped improve sanitation and housing in the neighborhood.
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S15
Jane Addams and Hull House (cont.)
• Hull House
workers lived in
the community
• Economic
desperation seen as
the root of urban
problems
• Addams’s political
work
Children outside Hull House, 1908
Addams and the other Hull House leaders believed that the people who worked there
should live in the community, allowing them to become an integral part of the
neighborhood, connect closely with those they provided service to, and gain a better
understanding of the reality of conditions there. She also held the Progressive view
that economic desperation, rather than moral character flaws, engendered the crime,
poor sanitation, and other problems common to poor neighborhoods. She therefore felt
that the key to helping impoverished people was to provide access to opportunities for
education, jobs, and full participation in the democratic process.
Addams became deeply involved not only in Hull House but also in the political
process. She advocated legislation to protect the working class, including the eight-
hour work day for women, Illinois child-labor law, the first juvenile courts, and
housing reform. To this end, she helped organize community groups to lobby public
officials. Writing and lecturing widely, she publicized the difficulties that the urban
poor faced.
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S16
Relief Programs and Charities
• Private relief programs
• Charity organizations
• Paid caseworkers replaced volunteers
• Tensions between charities and settlement houses
• Began to work toward common goals around 1900
In addition to the settlement houses, Progressives formed private relief programs
within churches, charities, and other organizations. These groups provided direct
assistance to poor people in need of basic accommodations and services, including
food, shelter, health care, education, and job placement.
Charity organizations had sprung up in urban areas since the Civil War. Volunteers,
almost always affluent women, would visit poor communities and assess their needs.
They would then report to the charity’s headquarters, which would organize and
dispense assistance. During the Progressive Era, paid caseworkers (generally also
women) replaced volunteers, forming the foundation for the modern profession of
social work.
Until about 1900, early social workers and the charities they worked for tended to
look down upon settlement houses. Settlement houses, in turn, tended to feel that the
charities looked down upon the poor and blamed poor people’s “moral failings” and
defects for their predicaments, rather than blaming social conditions in the cities.
After 1900, however, charities and settlement houses began to work together toward
their common goals.
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S17
New York’s Tenement House Act
• Poor sanitation, lack of basic
comforts, fire hazards, and
“moral indecencies” in
tenements
• Tenement House Committee
exhibition
• Tenement House Commission
• Tenement House Act (1901)
• Improved lighting,
ventilation, toilets, courtyards
New York City tenements,
early 1900s
Beginning in the 1840s, urban developers constructed apartment buildings for working-class
immigrant families. These buildings, known as “tenements,” became notorious for
overcrowding, fire hazards, and lack of light and adequate ventilation. Early tenements rarely
had plumbing, running water, or gas for heating and cooking. Most tenement residents worked
low-paying factory jobs.
Progressive reformers objected not only to poor living quarters in terms of sanitation, comfort,
and fire hazard, but also to potential moral indecencies they perceived to arise from such
conditions, including the lack of privacy in bedrooms and bathrooms. Reformers feared that a
vile tenement building posed a threat to the entire community as well as to tenement residents.
Some went so far as to claim that tenements caused most urban problems.
In 1899, a Tenement House Committee formed in New York City to work toward legislation
that would improve conditions. The committee held a two-week exhibition of photographs,
maps, and other documents providing details about the tenements. Many upper- and middle-
class people attended the exhibition, which was held in a wealthy part of town. It resulted in a
significant public response in favor of tenement improvement, as well as increased interest in
city parks and other urban beautification efforts. As a result of this publicity, New York City
established a Tenement House Commission, which submitted a report in 1901 recommending
legislation that would improve conditions. Passed in April 1901, the Tenement House Act
mandated improved lighting, ventilation, and toilet facilities, and required that new tenements
be built on larger lots than before and include windows and courtyards. Although landlords
vigorously opposed the law at first, they eventually came to recognize it as a suitable and
moderate reform.
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S18
Discussion Questions
1. What arguments did Progressive reformers make
against trusts?
2. Why did Jacob Riis’s work have so great an impact
on the cause of improving conditions in tenements?
3. What did reformers such as Jane Addams see as the
root of most urban problems? What solution did
she suggest?
1. Reformers felt that the trusts concentrated too much power over the economy into
the hands of the few, since trusts by definition sought to stifle competition. A
monopoly (or near-monopoly) usually results in higher prices for necessary
services. In addition, critics decried the poor treatment of workers in these
industries, which the near-monopoly status of trusts gave management little
incentive to improve, without competition.
2. Riis’s work made an impact by reaching people on two levels. First, his use of
flash photography allowed him to document even the darkest and most squalid of
tenements, putting accurate information on the plight of the urban poor in the most
comprehensible way—into images. Second, Riis had his photographs and
accompanying commentary published in major magazines (and later books) that
had middle- and upper-class readerships, which gave him access to a greater
number of individuals with time and money to devote to such causes.
3. Addams believed that economic desperation, rather than character flaws,
engendered the crime, poor sanitation, and other problems typical of cities—
especially in poorer neighborhoods. Her solution, as embodied by settlement
houses such as Hull House, was to help the impoverished by providing access to
opportunities for education, jobs, and ultimately full participation in the
democratic process.
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S19
Factory Conditions: Taylorism
• Increased automation
• Management consultant
Frederick W. Taylor
• Helped companies maximize
worker efficiency
• Workers and managers
complained of reduced
autonomy
• Did not offer workers long-term
economic security
Frederick W. Taylor
Many recent immigrants and others of the urban working class worked in factories.
In the late 19th century, factory owners experimented with new methods of
mechanization and automation, breaking down complex tasks into their simplest
components so that each worker along an assembly line could perform one
task repeatedly.
Much of this increased efficiency reflected the management style of Frederick W.
Taylor, who served as a consultant to large manufacturing corporations, including
Bethlehem Steel. Taylor studied workers and factory systems to determine the most
efficient methods of organizing factory operations. He used this knowledge to help
companies implement systems to maximize worker efficiency and, in the process,
reduce company expenses and increase profits.
Although Taylor claimed that his systems enhanced workers’ quality of life, most
workers felt differently. Stripped of their autonomy and ability to make decisions for
themselves, workers felt powerless and frequently bored. Workers also realized that
while Taylor’s policies increased wages initially, they jeopardized long-term wages
and job security because companies would come to expect workers to do more for
less and could more easily replace workers who “underperformed.” Many managers
did not like the new systems either, as they too saw a reduction in their autonomy
and control.
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S20
Factory Conditions: Workers
• Growing employment
insecurity
• Fear of injury or death
at work
• Assembly line workers
generally paid by the task
• Women and children
paid less
• Very few African Americans
• Workers began to organize
As factory automation and efficiency grew, workers needed less training and skill to
do their jobs. Some industrial workers were skilled craftsmen, but many more were
“industrial operatives” who needed little skill to work on the assembly lines. These
workers experienced growing levels of employment insecurity, living in constant fear
of being fired and replaced. They also feared being injured or killed in a factory
accident—not uncommon, considering factories’ low safety standards and the
increasing speed at which workers had to do their jobs.
As factories increased their efficiency, management expected workers to increase
their pace. They typically received payment based on how many times they completed
their repetitive task in a day and were penalized for slow or inadequate work or for
being late.
Factories employed women and children, both of whom they paid less than men.
Women and children often performed specific tasks that differed from the men’s jobs.
African Americans rarely worked in factories, as discrimination forced them into even
lower-status jobs as unskilled laborers or domestic servants.
The rapidly expanding industrial sector around the turn of the 20th century meant that
workers dissatisfied with working conditions could frequently quit their jobs and
easily find new ones. Nevertheless, workers did seek job security and increasingly
began to organize to negotiate with companies for better wages and conditions.
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S21
Sweatshops
• Factories with terrible
working conditions, low
wages, long hours
• Also referred to home-based
piecework
• Garment and cigar industries
• Recent immigrants
• Mostly women and some
children
Cigar factory, 1909
Factories with particularly difficult working conditions became known as
“sweatshops.” Sweatshops typically paid extremely low wages, required long hours
with few or no breaks, and provided very little job security (workers could be fired at
any time, for any reason). Owners often illegally housed sweatshop factories in the
backs or on the top floors of buildings and tended to move the factories to new
locations on a regular basis. Conditions were typically terrible, with fire hazards and
other safety issues routinely ignored.
The term “sweatshop” can also refer to the system of labor by which people work in
manufacturing industries at extremely low wages. During the Progressive Era, many
workers within this system actually worked at home. While working conditions may
have been more acceptable than in the factories, these laborers had to rapidly produce
large volumes of work (typically garments or pieces of garments, thus leading to the
term “piecework”), for which they received very little pay.
The garment and cigar industries became especially known for using sweatshop labor.
Sweatshop workers were generally recent immigrants, who would take any job offered
and complained little. Although men worked in sweatshops also, women made up the
greatest number of sweatshop employees. Many children also worked in the
sweatshop system.
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S22
Child Labor
• 1.75 million under
16 had jobs in 1900
(not including farms)
• Progressives
campaigned against
child labor and for
higher adult wages
• “Mother” Jones and
the Children’s
Crusade
Child coal miners
In 1900, approximately 1.75 million children under the age of 16 had jobs, not
including those working on farms. Often, a poor family could only survive financially
by sending its children into the factories. Many children, even those under the age of
eight, worked 12-hour days—a completely legal practice, prior to reforms.
Progressives campaigned against child labor while simultaneously agitating for higher
wages so that adults could earn enough money to make it unnecessary for their
children to work. Reformers also worked to increase the numbers of schools available
to children and the access these children had to public education.
In 1903, Mary Harris “Mother” Jones organized the Children’s Crusade, a group of
child workers from factories and mines in Pennsylvania. The children marched to
President Theodore Roosevelt’s summer home on Long Island to demand that they be
allowed to go to school rather than work. This march brought the issue of child labor
to the forefront of public discussion.
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S23
Child Labor (continued)
• National Child
Labor Committee
(1904)
• Hine’s photographs
• Child labor laws in
Northern states
• U.S. Children’s
Bureau
• Fair Labor
Standards Act
of 1938
Famous photograph by Lewis Hine of a girl
working in a textile factory
Beginning in 1904, the National Child Labor Committee (NCLC) sought the support
of prominent individuals in working toward children’s welfare and child labor
regulations. The NCLC hired photographer and sociologist Lewis Hine to document
child labor. Hine’s photographs of boys and girls working in mills and factories
increased public demand for regulations against child labor laws.
The NCLC successfully lobbied for child labor laws in many Northern states, but had
much less success in the South. The organization then turned toward national lobbying
efforts. In 1912, it convinced the Departments of Labor and Commerce to establish
the United States Children’s Bureau, which would work with the organization over the
next few decades to promote child labor laws on both the state and national levels.
The fight for child labor regulations continued past the Progressive Era. The NCLC’s
greatest success occurred with the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which remains
the primary legislation protecting children from “oppressive child labor” (defined in
great detail in the act, and including prohibiting children under 16 from working
for employers).
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S24
The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire
• Locked doors, highly
flammable materials, no
extinguishers, few exits
• March 25, 1911
• 146 people died, mainly
young immigrant
woman
• Led to public outcry,
increased legislation for
safety measures
The interior of the factory after the fire
Approximately 600 workers helped produce women’s blouses (“shirtwaists”) at the Triangle
Shirtwaist Factory in New York City. Mostly young immigrant women, they commonly
worked 12- to 14-hour days for very low wages. The factory’s owners fiercely opposed
unions, and although some workers had joined the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’
Union, most did not belong to a union.
Factory conditions were abysmal (although typical for the time), with a good deal of
flammable fabric littering the floor, paper patterns hanging on walls, gas lighting, and male
workers being allowed to smoke inside the factory. The factory did not have modern fire
extinguishers and only had a few buckets usable for a fire. Located on the top three floors of a
ten-story building, the factory had only a few possible exits. Management had locked some of
the outside doors, and the fire escape was not sturdy enough to hold large numbers of people.
A fire broke out on March 25, 1911. Many workers on the ninth floor could not evacuate the
building in time; many others jumped to their deaths. 146 people, mainly young women,
perished in the fire.
This tragedy contributed to a growing outcry for stronger worker safety and workers’
compensation laws. It also led to the establishment of the American Society of Safety
Engineers and an increased interest in the expansion of labor unions. The American Red
Cross and a special Joint Relief Committee established by garment workers’ unions assisted
survivors. At the unions’ urging, the governor appointed a commission to investigate factory
conditions, leading to factory safety legislation. Various other laws were also enacted to help
improve factory conditions.
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S25
The National Consumers League
• Florence Kelley (1899)
• Run primarily by women
• Pushed for fair and humane
manufacturing of consumer
products
• “White Label” program
• Advocated for state and
national minimum wage and
maximum work hour laws
• Muller v. Oregon (1908)
Florence Kelley
In 1899, Hull House leader Florence Kelley founded the National Consumers League
(NCL). Run primarily by women, its primary goals included establishing minimum
wage laws and laws limiting women’s and children’s work hours. The NCL appealed
to women as household consumers, advocating the idea that consumer products should
be manufactured in fair and humane ways.
The NCL adopted a “White Label” program, giving its stamp of approval to stores
that met minimum wage and maximum work hour requirements and provided decent
working conditions for its employees. The organization encouraged its supporters to
shop only at White Label stores and to boycott stores without the White Label.
The NCL also advocated for state and national minimum wage and maximum work
hour laws. Many Progressive organizations, including the NCL, felt that women
should have special consideration under labor law. In 1908, it assisted the proponents
of a 10-hour-maximum women’s workday, successfully arguing their case to the
Supreme Court. The Muller v. Oregon decision agreed that women deserved special
protection from lengthy work days; the court had struck down similar legislation
for men.
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S26
The Rise of the Labor Movement
and Unions
• Groups of workers
organized to negotiate with
employers
• Early unions vs. newer
unions
• Industrial unions at the turn
of the 20th century tended
to be more radical (IWW)
• Emerged in response to
mid-1890s economic
downturn
Labor unions are groups of workers who organize to collectively negotiate with their
employers for the wages, benefits, and working conditions they believe are fair. Unions
sometimes stage strikes, boycotts, and other activities to bring attention to their demands and
put pressure on employers. Local labor unions existed from the end of the 18th century, but
not until the late 19th century did the American labor movement become a significant factor
in organizing workers from a variety of trades and manufacturing businesses. Early unions
focused on specific crafts and trades. As the 20th century approached and increasing numbers
of low-wage immigrants worked in factories, new types of unions developed to represent
workers from a variety of manufacturing industries.
These new unions competed with the older ones, leading to tension within the labor
movement overall. The industrial unions established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
for example, tended to take more radical stances toward economic and social reforms than did
earlier craft and trade unions. The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW, or “Wobblies”)
was perhaps the most prominent of these unions, accepting all workers regardless of national
origin, religion, gender, or race and advocating political action, strikes, and boycotts. The
IWW formed as a reaction to disagreement with the American Federation of Labor (the AF of
L), a union federation which IWW members saw as too conservative and business friendly.
The economic downturn of the mid-1890s led many companies to reduce wages. Unions
became stronger in response, with increasing numbers of workers joining, local unions
consolidating into national federations, and workers increasingly striking to make their
demands clear.
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S27
The Pullman Strike (1894)
• Pullman company cut wages, did not lower rents
• Workers joined American Railway Union
• Strike shut down the passenger railway system
• Federal intervention led to violence; 34 dead
• Government broke the strike
A scene from
the strike
The Pullman Palace Car Company, a manufacturer of railroad sleeping cars, cut
wages during the economic downturn of the 1890s. Most of the company’s workers
lived in the company town of Pullman, south of Chicago. The company refused to
reduce rents to help compensate for the lower wages.
Pullman workers joined the American Railway Union, led by the labor leader Eugene
V. Debs. The workers went on strike, refusing to work on any trains with Pullman
cars. This strike had the effect of stopping passenger trains throughout the country.
The union promised that it did not intend to interfere with delivery of the U.S. mail.
President Cleveland nevertheless ordered federal troops to operate the railway,
claiming it necessary for ensuring delivery of the mail. Cleveland’s decision led to
rioting and the deaths of 34 people.
Federal intervention successfully broke the strike, and Eugene V. Debs, convicted of
ignoring a court injunction against union leaders supporting the strike, spent six
months in prison. The Pullman strike, while not leading to the gains workers had
hoped for, set a precedent for the labor movement to support striking and for the
federal government to intervene in strikes.
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S28
Samuel Gompers
• President of American
Federation of Labor (AF of L)
• Established collective
bargaining procedures
• Stressed worker benefits in
exchange for union dues
• AF of L less radical than other
unions
Samuel Gompers, a New Yorker who had emigrated from England at age 13, worked
in a cigar factory and became president of his local chapter of the Cigarmakers’
International Union. As president, he organized craft unions (unions whose members
all do the same type of work) to form the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor
Unions in 1881. This organization became the American Federation of Labor (AF of
L) in 1886, with Gompers as its president.
Gompers believed that fair treatment of workers and economic opportunity led to a
stable society. He especially had concerns about workers’ wages, which factory
owners often reduced. He therefore established procedures for collective bargaining,
the process by which union members can negotiate with their employers for wages,
limited working hours, and other worker benefits. He also implemented benefits for
unemployment, illness, and death, providing union members with increased job
security in return for their union dues.
Gompers tried to stay out of politics and spoke out against more radical labor
organizations such as the IWW. These organizations, in turn, saw Gompers as too
conservative and did not like the idea of negotiating with business owners.
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S29
Discussion Questions
1. What impact did Taylorism have on workers?
2. What was the National Consumers League’s
consumer-based approach toward ending
sweatshops and child labor? Do you see this as
effective? Why?
3. What differences between between older and newer
unions tended to cause tension within the labor
movement?
1. Under Taylor’s system, workers experienced reduced autonomy, greater
powerlessness, and increased boredom. While workers saw short-term gains in
wages, they knew that long-term benefits to workers would decrease, since
Taylor’s system made workers do more for less and made individual tasks take
less skill, jeopardizing job security.
2. In addition to standard means such as lobbying and backing test cases (e.g., Muller
v. Oregon), the NCL appealed directly to women consumers by labeling products
made by companies with fair minimum-wage and maximum work-hour
requirements with its White Label. Conversely, the NCL urged women to boycott
products and the stores that sold them that didn’t meet its approval. Students may
see this as perhaps more effective than agitating for legislation because it gave the
choice to participate in the program to the business owner, and to support the
program to the consumers; others may disagree for the very same reason.
3. Earlier unions usually focused on a specific craft or trade, while many newer
unions represented workers in a variety of occupations; this led to competition for
membership as newer unions became more inclusive. In addition, the newer
industrial unions established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries tended to
take more radical stances on economic and social reforms than did earlier craft
and trade unions. Unions such as the IWW formed in response to the more
conservative, business-friendly unions such as the AF of L.
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S30
The Good-Government Movement
• Political machines
• Patronage and the spoils
system
• Progressives aimed to
increase transparency and
honesty in city government
• National Municipal
League (1894)
• Reduced influence of
immigrants and working
class in city politics
“A Looming Tragedy of the Political
Deep,” a 1906 cartoon which depicts
Republican and Democratic machines
as sinking submarines
Many Progressive Era reformers looked to end governmental corruption, particularly at the
city level. Powerful “political machines” (hierarchical political organizations or parties run by
authoritarian bosses) controlled the governments of many major cities. These machines often
employed patronage systems, in which political leaders awarded gifts and political positions
to their supporters. In particular, machines operated by way of the spoils system, granting
government jobs to supporters who worked hard on the campaign, rather than basing
employment decisions on other qualifications.
To undermine these political machines, progressive advocates of “good government”
attempted to diminish the parties’ influence within city governments. In the process, they
aimed to increase transparency, making municipal government more accountable to the
people and more honest in their practices. Progressive politicians (including future President
Theodore Roosevelt), educators, business leaders, and journalists founded the National
Municipal League in 1894 with these goals in mind. This organization established local
reform groups in cities throughout the country. These groups helped educate each other about
good-government practices as their cities and states implemented new procedures, including
direct primaries and reforms to the election of city council members.
Despite their intentions, these good-government activities had the effect of reducing the
influence of immigrants and the working class on city politics, since political machines
generally targeted these groups. Progressives did not necessarily find this result undesirable,
however, as many Progressive political reformers distrusted immigrants and members of the
working class.
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S31
Direct Primaries
• Allow voters—not party
leaders or bosses—to
directly choose
candidates
• Robert La Follette of
Wisconsin
• WI adopted first direct
primary law in 1903
The good-government movement also worked to establish direct primaries in the
states. The direct primary (also called a “primary election”) allows voters to select
candidates for office, rather than candidates being chosen at party conventions or
caucuses. The direct primary process therefore permitted an increased level of public
participation in a democratic system, rather than allowing party leaders and bosses to
choose candidates on their own.
Robert La Follette, as governor of Wisconsin (1901–1906) and Wisconsin senator
(1906–1925), played an instrumental role in establishing direct primaries in his state
and set an example for other states to follow. Wisconsin adopted the first direct
primary law in the country in 1903.
Note to teacher: The cartoon in this slide, “A Seat That Holds Them All,” refers to
the debate over direct primaries that dominated William Sulzer's term as governor of
New York. Sulzer's support for the direct primary infuriated Tammany officials who
opposed the measure. The cartoonist shows Sulzer with Hearst and Roosevelt,
prominent figures whom Sulzer recruited to show public support for his direct primary
bill. (Information on the cartoon from the Library of Congress.)
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S32
Lincoln Steffens
• Muckraker who exposed
government corruption
• Articles in McClure’s
• The Shame of the Cities
(1904)
• Uncovered direct
evidence of graft
• Increased public outrage
In an attempt to expose government corruption, muckraker Lincoln Steffens wrote
a series of articles in McClure’s magazine that he subsequently compiled into a
1904 book titled The Shame of the Cities. Steffens focused on St. Louis, Minneapolis,
Cleveland, New York, Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia. During his
investigations, he uncovered evidence of graft payments (gifts to politicians in return
for political favors); in Minneapolis, he photographed a ledger clearly showing such
payments.
Steffens aimed to invoke public outrage against government corruption, thus leading
to increased calls for change. His efforts, combined with other muckraking activities,
effectively increased outrage among the general public.
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S33
Steffens: From The Shame
of the Cities
When I set out to describe the corrupt systems of certain
typical cities, I meant to show simply how the people
were deceived and betrayed. But in the very first study—
St. Louis—the startling truth lay bare that corruption
was not merely political; it was financial, commercial,
social; the ramifications of boodle were so complex,
various, and far-reaching, that one mind could hardly
grasp them, and not even Joseph W. Folk, the tireless
prosecutor, could follow them all.
Discussion questions: This excerpt is from Steffens’s introduction to The Shame of the Cities.
Have students read it, and then ask following:
•Whose “side” was Steffens on? Who was he trying to support in this investigation? How can
you tell? (Steffens supported the people, rather than the politicians—evident when he says “the
people were deceived and betrayed.”)
•What does Steffens mean when he says, “corruption was not merely political; it was financial,
commercial, social…?” (He means that the corruption was more complex than relating simply
to a few corrupt politicians. Rather, it was closely intertwined with the cities’ financial and
social structures.)
•In what ways might urban corruption have been complex, rather than simply a matter of a few
corrupt politicians? (For example, prominent business leaders might have been involved in
financial dealings with the city, paying off politicians to protect or enhance their businesses.
Similarly, tenement landlords might have bribed city officials to look the other way regarding
their buildings’ conditions. Since these prominent individuals had social connections and
influence on many levels of city life, it would have been very difficult to stand up against them.
They therefore would have held sway over newspaper reporters and editors and others who
might have otherwise come forward to denounce the corruption.)
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S34
Initiative and Referendum
• Initiative: citizens vote
on a proposed state law
• Referendum: citizens
vote on an existing law
• Progressives saw state
legislatures as corrupt
and beholden to wealthy
business interests
• South Dakota became
the first to enact both,
in 1898
Articles of
incorporation for
the California
Good Government
League, which
promised in the
document to
“work for the
purification” of
the L.A. city
government
through initiative,
referendum, and
recall
Progressive “good government” reformers also established initiative and referendum
procedures in state electoral systems. These new procedures allowed citizens to vote
directly on state laws, increasing the level of public participation. The initiative
permitted citizens to vote for or against a proposed state law, while the referendum
asked citizens to vote for or against an existing state law.
Progressives favored the initiative and referendum procedures because they felt that
state legislatures tended to be corrupt and beholden to wealthy business interests
rather than to the general public. In 1898, South Dakota became the first state to enact
the initiative and referendum.
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S35
The 17th Amendment
• Constitution originally had state legislatures
elect senators
• Bribery, corruption, deadlocks in state
legislatures
• Direct primaries aimed to change this method
• “Oregon System”
The U.S. Constitution originally mandated that state legislatures, rather than the
public, should elect U.S. senators. As the 19th century progressed, this arrangement
became increasingly controversial. During the Civil War, for example, conflict
between the Democratic and Republican parties within some states prevented their
legislatures from choosing any senators for long periods of time. After the war,
problems with bribery and corruption often led to contested senatorial votes in state
legislatures, and many legislatures remained deadlocked, not sending any senators to
Washington.
During the 1890s and into the early part of the 20th century, efforts to reform the
system of electing senators gained momentum. Beginning with South Carolina in
1888, states reformed their electoral systems to include the direct primary, by which
members of the voting public could directly vote for senatorial candidates. Since the
Constitution still mandated that state legislatures elect senators, the direct primary
system called for state legislatures to elect the senatorial candidates who had received
the greatest number of popular votes.
Other states adopted the “Oregon System,” which called for a runoff election between
the two senatorial candidates who had received the most votes from each party.
Candidates for state legislature were asked to make public statements either promising
to vote for the senatorial candidate who received the most votes or admitting that they
would vote for whomever they wanted to. This made it easier for voters to choose
candidates who would honor the results of a direct primary.
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S36
The 17th Amendment (cont.)
• Little support in Senate,
except La Follette
• Phillips’s The Treason of
the Senate
• Amendment ratified
in 1913
In the early 20th century, many states began to favor amending the Constitution to
allow for direct election of senators. Progressive leaders, including Robert La Follette
of Wisconsin, championed this change, but members of the U.S. Senate resisted.
Public support for an amendment increased largely as a result of muckraking articles
published in Cosmopolitan magazine, a well-respected general interest magazine
owned by publishing magnate William Randolph Hearst. In Cosmopolitan, muckraker
David Graham Phillips wrote a series entitled The Treason of the Senate, describing
senators as extremely corrupt.
Senators who had been elected via direct primaries began to support a constitutional
amendment. The Senate passed this amendment in 1911, while the House did the next
year. After ratification by the states, the 17th Amendment went into effect in 1913.
Senators would now be elected “by the people thereof,” rather than by state
legislatures. Most people regarded this amendment as a victory for Progressives and a
blow to corruption in the Senate.
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S37
Discussion Questions
1. What were the main goals of the good-government
movement?
2. How are an initiative and a referendum similar?
How are they different?
3. What did the 17th Amendment provide for? What
were some problems it was designed to prevent?
1. Reformers tried to increase the transparency of government (particularly city
government), making it more accountable and honest. They also hoped to diminish
the influence of political parties—especially political machines—within city
governments and to end patronage and the often counterproductive spoils system.
2. Both an initiative and a referendum give voters direct say on a piece of state
legislation, either for or against. They differ in that an initiative involves a law not
yet passed, while a referendum concerns a law already in effect.
3. The 17th Amendment provided for the election of U.S. senators by popular vote,
rather than selection by state legislatures. The Constitution’s original system often
caused a deadlock between parties in state legislatures, resulting in a vacancy in
the U.S. Senate. In addition, many saw this process as facilitating bribery
and corruption.
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S38
Women’s Suffrage
• Included in movement
toward more democratic
government
• NAWSA formed in 1890
• More women served as
progressive leaders
• Anthony, Catt, and Paul
• 19th Amendment passed in
1919
Suffragists celebrate the ratification of
the 19
th
Amendment
During the Progressive Era, women did not have the right to vote. The women’s suffrage
movement had been gaining momentum since the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, at which
advocates drafted a Declaration of Sentiments calling for women to be given the vote. At the
dawn of the 20th century, the movement toward more democratic government increasingly
involved the issue of women’s suffrage.
In 1890, the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) formed by
combining the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman
Suffrage Association (AWSA), with suffragist leader Susan B. Anthony as the new
organization’s first president. Around the same time, women became leaders of progressive
reform institutions and initiatives, including Jane Addams’s Hull House. As women’s voices
became more prominent, progressive leaders called for a more fair and democratic system of
electing representatives to all levels of government.
In the early 20th century, millions of women and men mobilized to support women’s suffrage.
This mobilization increased with new activist leaders, including NAWSA president Carrie
Chapman Catt, who replaced Anthony in 1904. Catt gave numerous lectures on the topic of
women’s suffrage and recruited thousands of volunteers and new members to the organization.
Alice Paul joined NAWSA in 1912 and became a prominent activist in the organization,
particularly in fundraising and congressional lobbying. She strongly supported a constitutional
amendment permitting women’s suffrage, rather than a continued state-by-state push as
NAWSA had been doing. The suffragists’ dream did not become reality until 1919, when the
19th Amendment to the Constitution passed the Senate and House and was ratified by three-
fourths of the states.
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S39
The Temperance Movement
• Some felt that alcohol
undermined society’s
“moral fabric”
• Supported curtailing or
banning alcohol
• WCTU and Anti-Saloon
League
• Targeted immigrants and
corrupt politicians
• State and local successes
• 19th Amendment (1919)
Many Progressive Era reformers—particularly women—joined the temperance
movement. This movement had begun in the 1830s, advocating the curtailment and
sometimes the prohibition of alcohol. Progressive temperance advocates argued that
drinking alcohol undermined the moral fabric of society and linked alcohol to corrupt
politicians, particularly in the cities. Temperance activism targeted immigrants,
particularly the Irish, who developed a reputation for heavy drinking. The push for
temperance gained strength during the last decades of the 19th century, particularly
with the establishment of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) in
1874. Its membership peaked in the late 19th century, with approximately 200,000
members. The Anti-Saloon League formed in 1893 and worked closely with
Protestant churches to spread its message in favor of the complete prohibition
of alcohol.
Supporters of temperance saw success at the state and local levels in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries, particularly in the South, West, and rural states. They met
national success in 1919, with the passage of the 18th Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution. (The amendment was repealed in 1933 by the 21st Amendment.)
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S40
Morality “Policing”
• Moral “improvement” for
immigrants, working class,
and the young
• Targeted leisure activities
(e.g., movies, music)
• Ragtime and jazz
• Rules against “immoral”
dancing
• Whites thought new music
tied too closely to African
American culture
A common Progressive argument called for reforms to involve some level of moral
“improvement,” particularly amongst immigrant and working-class populations and
young people. Reformers who felt this way, primarily middle-class women, often
sought to regulate others’ personal behavior. They particularly targeted leisure
activities of populations they felt needed some moral “fine-tuning,” for example, by
establishing a National Board of Censorship to regulate the content of movies.
The Progressive Era coincided with the exploding popularity of ragtime and jazz
music, particularly for young people of all ethnic backgrounds and races. Some white
middle-class reformers opposed this trend and established lists of dancing rules
(e.g. preventing women and men from dancing too close together) to curb what they
viewed as immoral dancing. They felt the new musical trends were too closely tied
to African American culture and feared it threatened the morality of young
white women.
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S41
The Eugenics Movement
• Believed that those with
“inferior” genes threatened the
nation’s future
• Sought to curb reproduction
by the “inferior” and increase
reproduction by the “superior”
• Supported by many
Progressives
• 18 states enacted eugenics laws
• Waned after WWII
Some Progressive reformers also embraced eugenics, a movement within the scientific
community that claimed that people with “inferior” genes posed a threat to a nation’s
morality and future development. Proponents believed that the country would improve
if it could curb reproduction by those of “inferior” genetic stock and increase
reproduction by people of “superior” genetic constitution. These designations of good
and bad often related to race, class, and ethnicity, with the white middle and upper
classes considered superior to new immigrants, lower classes, and African Americans.
Eugenicists also targeted the mentally disabled, proposing sterilization programs for
the developmentally disabled, residents of insane asylums, and perpetrators of certain
crimes. Eighteen states—beginning with Indiana, in 1907—enacted laws permitting
sterilization for people considered insane or mentally retarded. In these states, doctors
could legally sterilize people without their consent.
Many prominent progressives, including presidents Theodore Roosevelt and
Woodrow Wilson, supported the eugenics movement. Major universities taught
eugenics as part of their science curricula, thus perpetuating this pseudoscience
through affluent young students who would later gain positions of power in American
society. The eugenics movement therefore blended into middle- and upper-class belief
systems, including those of the Progressive movement.
The eugenics movement waned in the U.S. after World War II, as Americans learned
about Nazi Germany’s own eugenics programs and became increasingly appalled at
similar practices within the United States.
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S42
African Americans in the
Progressive Era
• Reforms focused on poor
whites and European
immigrants
• Menial jobs
• Jim Crow laws in the South
• Ineligible for most Northern
factory jobs
• Worked mostly as
domestics or day laborers
A black sharecropper
While a multitude of Progressive reforms and activism occurred at the local, state, and
national levels, they mainly benefited native-born Caucasians and European
immigrants. African Americans fared much worse during this period.
Typically relegated to the most menial jobs in the North and the South, including
sharecropping on farms owned by Southern whites, African Americans continued to
face intense discrimination throughout the country. During this era, Jim Crow laws
came into full force in the South, entrenching discrimination for decades to come by
preventing blacks from voting and imposing second-class citizenship upon African
Americans in most areas of life. Violence against African Americans increased in the
South, with lynch mobs enforcing the racial code.
African Americans generally could not secure even the most undesirable factory
jobs in the North. Instead, they tended to work as domestics or day laborers. Although
they did not face the same level of institutionalized discrimination as in the South,
African Americans in the North struggled daily with acts of prejudice and
economic discrimination.
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S43
African Americans in the
Progressive Era (continued)
• Most reformers middle-
class whites; many
highly racist
• African Americans
forced to organize their
own reforms and groups
•Ida B. Wells
Ida B. Wells
Most Progressive reformers were middle-class whites. While promoting the ideals of
fairness and justice for American workers, the reformers often expressed highly racist
sentiments and did not include African Americans among those for whom they were
fighting. Many had accepted the idea, commonly taught in universities at the time,
that African Americans were innately inferior to whites.
This growth in discrimination did not prevent African Americans from organizing
their own reform activities, which were generally separate from white progressive
programs. For example, teacher and civil- and women’s-rights activist Ida B. Wells
traveled the country helping to establish black women’s clubs, which focused on
finding solutions not only to racism but also to problems with education, health,
sanitation, and other Progressive concerns. African American women also founded
settlement houses and mutual-benefit societies to help other black women in the North
and the South. Many African Americans also established community support
networks, purchased land, and formed agricultural cooperatives, particularly in the
South. African Americans in industry participated in strikes, although segregated into
their own unions.
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S44
African Americans:
Booker T. Washington
• Founded Tuskegee Institute
• Promoted educational
opportunities
• Allied with prominent whites
• Believed white support was
needed to get ahead
The two most prominent African American leaders during the Progressive Era were
Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois.
Washington founded the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, an African American
teachers’ college that later became Tuskegee University. An educator and author,
Washington advocated for African Americans while promising white America that he
would not demand the black vote or insist upon integration. He received endorsements
from middle- and upper-class whites, including many Progressive government and
industrial leaders, who approved of his conciliatory attitude and did not see him as a
threat. Most middle-class blacks also strongly supported his ideas. Washington formed
many alliances with political, philanthropic, and education leaders and promoted a
strong agenda for African American education. He believed that establishing
alliances with and gaining the support of whites made for the best path toward
increased opportunities for African Americans, particularly as they gained
educational opportunities.
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S45
African Americans:
W.E.B. Du Bois
• Strongly against
segregation and
discrimination
• Wrote articles
and books;
published other
blacks’ work
• Challenged
blacks to stand
up against the
dominant culture
Some African Americans, including members of the NAACP (National Association
for the Advancement of Colored People), criticized Washington in his later years for
not taking a strong public stand against segregation and discrimination. Civil rights
activist and author W.E.B. Du Bois participated in this criticism and spoke out
forcefully in favor of changing the political climate and laws that led to
discrimination. Du Bois wrote and published numerous articles and published the
works of other African American authors, including the poet Langston Hughes. Like
Washington, Du Bois strongly supported education for African Americans, but he did
not believe that they should try to “fit in” to white culture. Rather, he challenged
African Americans to question and stand up against the dominant views and policies
that most whites—including Progressive activists—supported.
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S46
Discussion Questions
1. What were some ways in which Progressives
attempted to improve the “morality” of the lower-
class? Do you see these actions as effective? Why?
2. How did Washington and Du Bois differ in
philosophy as to how blacks could better their lives
and get ahead? Whose approach would most
Progressives have likely preferred? Why?
1. Progressives tried to make immigrants, the poor, and the young (who were likely
considered more susceptible) more “moral” by fighting to curtail the use of or ban
alcohol, to regulate the content of movies, discouraging dancing “too closely,” and
by condemning new genres of music such as ragtime and jazz, both of which
moral reformers disliked because of their association with African Americans.
Students will likely see these measures as ineffective, probably because of
unintended consequences such as organized crime’s rise during Prohibition;
moreover, the complaints raised by Progressives are the same leveled against the
poor and the young in every decade since.
2. While both men strongly stressed the importance of education as a means of
improving blacks’ position in society, Washington believed that blacks needed the
support of whites to succeed as a whole, while Du Bois advocated that African
Americans question and stand up against the dominant white culture. Most
Progressives—who tended to harbor racist beliefs in spite of their drive to help the
poor and disadvantaged—likely preferred Washington’s approach, since he didn’t
agitate for integration or black voting rights and seemed less of a threat to the
social order; Du Bois’s ideas about changing the political climate and passing
legislation, let alone his lack of interest in conforming to white culture, probably
seemed radical to white Progressives.
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S47
President William McKinley
• Elected in 1896
• Foreign affairs in first term
• Handily won election of 1900
on “prosperity” platform
• Supported rapid
industrialization and trusts
• Began to change his views
on trusts
• Assassinated in 1901
William McKinley won the presidential election of 1896, defeating the populist
Democrat William Jennings Bryan. A Republican, McKinley campaigned on a
platform that emphasized a protective tariff on imports and keeping the U.S. on the
gold standard (meaning the dollar would be worth a predetermined amount of gold).
McKinley spent most of his first term consumed by foreign affairs, including fighting
the Spanish-American War. He ran for reelection against Bryan in 1900, along with
his vice presidential running mate, New York governor and war hero Theodore
Roosevelt. McKinley ran on a platform of “prosperity,” emphasizing the country’s
increasing domestic wealth and power abroad. He won handily.
At first McKinley supported the rapid industrialization sweeping the country,
including the growth of large businesses and trusts. He began to change his views
during his second term, when he called for attention to the increasing problem of
industrial consolidation into trusts and stopped supporting protective tariffs.
McKinley did not live long enough to enact policies in accordance with his changing
views. While attending the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, on
September 6, 1901, McKinley was shot in the abdomen by the anarchist son of Polish
immigrants. He died eight days later, and Theodore Roosevelt became president.
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S48
President Theodore Roosevelt
• Considered a liability by
Republican Party leaders
• Disliked both excessive
corporate power and potential
violence by the working class
• Believed the wealthy had
a moral obligation to help
the poor
Although Roosevelt was a hero of the Spanish-American War and very popular with
the public, many Republican leaders regarded him as an unpredictable liability to
their party. These Republicans had been pleased that Roosevelt, clearly a highly
ambitious politician, was relegated to the role of McKinley’s vice president.
McKinley’s assassination forced the nation—and the Republican Party—to accept
Roosevelt’s leadership.
Roosevelt had deep concerns about the economic and social divisions that had become
increasingly clear in American society. He disliked excessive corporate power and the
consolidation of extreme wealth in the hands of a few corporate magnates, and he also
spoke out against the power of the underclass to foment violence against the upper
classes. Although raised in an extremely wealthy New York family, Roosevelt
branched out from this circle of affluence to promote laws and regulations helping the
poor and working class. His father had taught him that the wealthy had a moral
obligation to help the poor.
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S49
President Theodore Roosevelt
(continued)
• Increased federal
government’s role
in regulation
• Only opposed
monopolies he
believed worked
against the public
interest
• Became very
popular
Roosevelt greatly expanded the role of the federal government as opposed to
individual states, particularly with regard to regulation. Although he gained a
reputation as a “trustbuster” and a champion of the working class, he was more
conservative than is often believed. He did not oppose all monopolies, but rather only
those that he believed worked against the public interest. He began his presidency on a
cautious note, becoming bolder during his second term.
Roosevelt became very popular with the general public, in large part because of his
assertive personality, well-publicized personal exploits (including driving a car, flying
an airplane, and going in a submarine), and willingness to assert government authority
against corporate power. He easily won election to his own term in 1904.
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S50
Roosevelt: The Square Deal
• A package of laws and regulations that he felt to be
fair to all, particularly workers:
– Increased regulation of business
– Workers’ right to organize
– Eight-hour work days
– Pure food and drug laws
– Income and inheritance taxes on the wealthy
Roosevelt used the term “Square Deal” to describe his overall domestic program,
which demonstrated his desire to promote laws and regulations that were fair to all
people. Roosevelt argued that farmers and wage earners should feel that they received
fair treatment, because fair treatment for the lower classes would engender democracy
and prosperity for all members of society.
To this end, Roosevelt used the Sherman Antitrust Act to challenge business
monopolies. He supported increased regulations on business, workers’ right to
organize into unions, eight-hour workdays for federal employees, pure food and drug
laws, and income and inheritance taxes on the wealthiest Americans.
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S51
Roosevelt: Trustbusting
• Established Department of
Commerce and its Bureau of
Corporations
• Invoked Sherman Antitrust
Act in over 40 lawsuits
• Northern Securities
Company case set precedent
• Hepburn Act set maximum
railroad rates and
strengthened the ICC
Early in his presidency, Roosevelt took action against the trusts, particularly the
railroads. In 1903, Congress followed Roosevelt’s wishes by establishing the
Department of Commerce, which contained a Bureau of Corporations. This bureau
had the power to investigate corporations and publish the results, although it could not
directly regulate them.
Roosevelt invoked the Sherman Antitrust Act to serve lawsuits against more than
40 trusts, including J.P. Morgan’s Northern Securities Company, a conglomerate
of western railroads. After much litigation, the Supreme Court ordered that the
company be dissolved in 1904. This case set the precedent for Roosevelt’s other
antitrust lawsuits.
Roosevelt further acted against railroad monopolies by supporting the Hepburn
Act of 1906. This law allowed the Interstate Commerce Commission to establish
maximum railroad rates and review railroad companies’ records. It ended the
practice of railroads charging inflated rates and had the intention of facilitating trade
and travel via the railroads. It also greatly increased the power of the Interstate
Commerce Commission.
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S52
Roosevelt: Conservation Ethic
and Actions
• Saw America’s landscape as
central to its democratic spirit;
natural resources vital to
economic, political strength
• Resources belong to the
public
• Set aside numerous public
lands
• U.S. Forest Service (1905)
• Antiquities Act (1906)
Roosevelt and naturalist John Muir
at Yosemite in Californai
An avid outdoorsman and hunter, Roosevelt became the first president to make environmental
conservation a central goal. He viewed the American landscape as central to the nation’s
democratic character and spirit, with its unique wilderness areas (such as the Grand Canyon)
symbolic of American pride, uniqueness, and greatness. He also understood that the country’s
natural resources play a vital role in its economic health and global political strength.
Roosevelt’s presidency came at a time when many Americans were beginning to realize that the
natural resources on which the country had built its wealth were finite. Roosevelt feared that if
the country’s natural resources continued to decline or became controlled by a small number of
wealthy individuals or corporations, the economic potential of future generations would be
jeopardized, posing a threat to democracy. He particularly believed that the nation’s natural
wealth belonged to the public, rather than to private interests. He also felt that hunting and other
outdoor pursuits contributed vitally to a man’s character, and he lamented that modern urban
men were losing the sense of “manliness” that only the outdoors could develop.
With the goal of conserving these resources—not only for economic security but also for the
enjoyment of all Americans—Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service, five
national parks, and numerous other wildlife refuges and reservations. These amounted to more
public land designations than all previous presidents combined. In establishing and managing
these lands, Roosevelt worked closely with National Forest Service head Gifford Pinchot, an
advocate of efficient federal (as opposed to private) forest management. Roosevelt also
established the Antiquities Act of 1906, allowing the president to directly order the preservation
of areas of national significance, particularly archaeological sites.
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S53
Ida M. Tarbell
• Teacher and muckraker
• The History of the Standard Oil
Company (1904)
• Exposed monopolistic business
practices
• Contributed to public outrage
and support for antitrust
legislation
• Inspired other muckrakers
While Roosevelt used his presidential powers against the trusts, activists helped in
exposing the trusts’ unscrupulous business practices. Teacher and muckraking
journalist Ida M. Tarbell became best known for her investigative exposé of the
Standard Oil Company. This report, entitled The History of the Standard Oil
Company, appeared as a series in McClure’s magazine and was then published as a
book in 1904. In the report, Tarbell exposed the monopolistic business practices of
Standard Oil’s founder and owner, John D. Rockefeller.
The History of the Standard Oil Company contributed to public outrage against
Standard Oil and public support for antitrust legislation. The report also inspired other
journalists to conduct similar investigations into the trusts.
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S54
The Coal Strike of 1902
• May: PA mine workers
struck over wages and
safety
• Threatened coal
availability
• June: Roosevelt ordered
investigation
• October: Roosevelt’s
meeting; no progress
• Public support for
strikers grew
Striking miners
On May 12, 1902, the United Mine Workers of America went on strike in the anthracite
(“hard”) coal fields of eastern Pennsylvania. The union sought formal recognition from the
coal industry, more control over workers’ wages, and improvement of safety concerns. This
strike threatened the availability of coal for heating the homes of millions of city residents,
particularly if the strike were to continue into the colder months of the year.
Tensions mounted between strikers and law enforcement, including the Pennsylvania
National Guard. President Roosevelt became involved on June 8th, ordering an investigation
of the strike. On October 3rd, he organized a meeting with representatives of government,
labor, and management, at which he expressed his deep concern about a possible shortfall of
coal for the coming winter. He called for an immediate end to the strike, appealing to the
need to sacrifice for the common good.
Despite Roosevelt’s pleas, this meeting did not produce immediate results. The company’s
owners refused to negotiate with labor. Roosevelt asked the union to end the strike in
exchange for his support of a commission to investigate and propose a resolution to the issues
that had led to the strike. Union leaders and members overwhelmingly rejected this proposal.
Public support for the striking coal workers grew rapidly, and many business and government
leaders (including Roosevelt) feared escalating violence and a populist call for socialist
governmental policies. Some strikers acted violently against people related to the mine
owners, including family members and security guards.
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S55
The Coal Strike of 1902
(continued)
• Morgan’s commission
• Strike ended late October
• Increased union
confidence and
membership
• Set precedent for federal
involvement in strikes
The government recruited the help of J.P. Morgan, a major stakeholder in the coal business.
Morgan had helped negotiate a previous coal strike and had the government’s trust in helping
resolve in this emergency. Morgan helped set up a commission that included engineers, a
judge, a coal industry expert, and a union leader. Industry representatives could thus avoid the
appearance of negotiating with the union directly by communicating with the commission.
The strike ended on October 23rd. The commission investigated conditions in the coal fields
and business practices in the coal industry. It concluded that the horrendous working
conditions many strikers had reported were the exception to the rule. It directed the two sides
to “split the difference” in terms of what they wanted, with coal workers receiving 10% wage
increases, as opposed to the 20% they had asked for, and a nine-hour workday instead of the
requested eight hours. The commission also required the establishment of a six-member
arbitration board, to be staffed by equal number of coal company and union leaders.
Despite these compromises, most saw the Coal Strike of 1902 as a victory for the union. The
strike had the effect of increasing confidence in unions and therefore raising union
membership.
The strike also represented the first time the federal government had direct participation in
negotiations between business owners and workers. Roosevelt’s involvement set a precedent
for government intervention in future strikes, citing the interests of the general public as a
legitimate government responsibility.
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S56
Upton Sinclair and The Jungle
• Published 1906
• Harsh criticisms of working
conditions in Chicago’s
meatpacking industry
• Instant bestseller
• Public more concerned about
meat safety than working
conditions
• Meat sales abroad cut in half
Upton Sinclair
In 1906, author Upton Sinclair published his most famous novel, The Jungle. This
book offered a scathing criticism of conditions in Chicago’s meatpacking industry,
describing the characters’ impoverished living conditions, harsh working conditions,
lack of social programs or support, and stark contrast between the working-class main
characters and people of wealthier classes. In one famous scene, Sinclair described
workers falling into rendering tanks and being processed along with the meat.
In The Jungle and other writings, Sinclair continued the muckraking tradition. Sinclair
distrusted both of the major political parties, feeling that neither party had an interest
in working toward real solutions to the problems that he wrote about.
The Jungle first appeared as a series of articles in the socialist newspaper The Appeal
to Reason. It became an instant bestseller when released in book form in 1906. The
public reacted strongly to the conditions they read about, but people seemed most
concerned with the issue of food safety and contaminated meat, rather than the issue
of working conditions as Sinclair had intended. As the book circulated internationally,
American meat sales abroad decreased by half. This led the meatpacking industry to
call for government inspection and certification of American meat.
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S57
Food and Drug Legislation
• In response to growing
public outrage over
unsafe and unsanitary
food
• Upton Sinclair’s
The Jungle
• Meat Inspection Act
(1906)
• Pure Food and Drug
Act (1906)
A German meatpacking plant
Once he’d won a presidential election, Roosevelt became less cautious and more
liberal in exerting his opinions and authority in favor of governmental regulation. Two
of the most significant regulatory actions Roosevelt supported were the Pure Food and
Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act, both of 1906. With Roosevelt’s support,
Congress passed these laws in response to increasing public outrage against reported
incidents of food poisoning and unsanitary conditions in meatpacking factories.
Newspaper articles had blamed meatpackers for sickening U.S. troops in Cuba during
the Spanish-American War by sending them unhealthy meat. The publication of The
Jungle greatly expanded the level of public concern about this issue.
Roosevelt had sent inspectors into meatpacking plants to verify Upton Sinclair’s
reports. Their conclusions led him to support a law regulating the meatpacking
industry. The Meat Inspection Act authorized the Department of Agriculture to
inspect meat and deem it unfit for human consumption when necessary. The law
also required the inspection of meatpacking plants that intended to ship meat across
state lines.
Consumers had concerns about the adulteration of food and medicines with
unnecessary or unsavory chemicals and ingredients. The Pure Food and Drug Act
required that food and medicine shipped between states or abroad be unadulterated
and properly labeled. Many farmers and some food and drug producers supported the
law, hoping to differentiate their products from “adulterated” ones and therefore
maintain consumer confidence.
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S58
The Panic of 1907
• A severe economic crisis
• Recession began in 1906
• NYSE plunged by 50%
• Runs on banks
• Knickerbocker Trust Company
collapsed
• Unemployment, bankruptcies
rose; production, imports fell
• J.P. Morgan, others personally
contributed money
J.P. Morgan
During much of Roosevelt’s administration, the U.S. economy stayed unstable. An
economic recession beginning in 1906 culminated in the Panic of 1907, one of the
most severe economic crises of the era. The New York Stock Exchange plunged 50%,
and people made runs on banks. The collapse of one of New York’s largest trusts (a
type of commercial bank, not a business trust), the Knickerbocker Trust Company,
caused other trusts to panic as banks began to withhold money. This panic spread to
the general public. During the economic recession, unemployment and bankruptcies
rose while production, imports, and immigration fell.
Financier J.P. Morgan pledged a large sum of his own money to help stabilize the
banks and convinced other wealthy financiers to do the same. These actions helped
slow down the crisis. However, later in 1907, the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad
Company (TCI) collapsed, threatening the financial solvency of New York’s major
brokerage firm. This situation could have been disastrous to the economy, but
Roosevelt allowed Morgan’s U.S. Steel to intervene with an emergency takeover
of TCI.
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S59
The Federal Reserve Act
• Response to Panic of 1907
• National Monetary
Commission
• Federal Reserve Act
(1913)
• Federal Reserve System
• Gave government control
over monetary and
banking systems, in
accordance with
Progressive Era trends
A painting depicting President Wilson
signing the Federal Reserve Act
As a result of the Panic of 1907 and the overall recession and economic instability of
this time, the government took measures toward reforming the country’s financial
system. In 1908, Congress established the National Monetary Commission to study
and propose solutions to problems in the banking system that had led to the panic. The
commission sent Senate Republican leader Nelson Aldrich to Europe to study the
European banking system, in which countries had central banks that could put money
into the economy during downturns.
Although many members of the federal government appeared ready for Progressive
reform of the country’s financial system, any concrete changes took several years. At
the recommendation of the National Monetary Commission, Congress passed the
Federal Reserve Act in 1913. This created the Federal Reserve System, a central
banking system for the country that remains in place today. The act reflected some of
the ideals of the Progressive Era in that it established government control over the
monetary and banking systems, rather than placing these systems solely into private
hands. It proved politically polarizing, with most Republicans voting against it and
most Democrats voting for it.
At the time, people hoped this new system would prevent national financial disasters
similar to the Panic of 1907. The stock market crash of 1929 that ushered in the Great
Depression dashed these hopes.
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S60
The Progressive Party and the
Election of 1912
• Taft won in 1908
• Rift in Republican Party
between Progressives and
conservatives
• Progressive (“Bull Moose”)
Party split from Republican
Party; nominated Roosevelt
• Democrat Wilson won in
1912, with Roosevelt second
Progressive Party convention, 1912
Roosevelt decided not to run for reelection in 1908. His hand-picked successor,
Republican William Howard Taft, easily won the election against William Jennings
Bryan to become the next president. Taft proved much less popular than Roosevelt,
antagonizing Progressives, conservatives, and Roosevelt himself. This led to a deep
split between Progressives and conservatives within the Republican Party. Taft led the
conservative wing, while Roosevelt (although no longer president) led the party’s
Progressive wing.
When the Republicans decided to nominate Taft for reelection in 1912, a number of
Progressive Republicans split from the party and formed the Progressive Party, also
known as the “Bull Moose Party.” The Bull Moose Party nominated Roosevelt as its
presidential candidate. Three major parties therefore participated in the election: the
Republicans supporting Taft, the Bull Moose Party supporting Roosevelt, and the
Democratic Party supporting Woodrow Wilson. The resulting split in the Republican
vote made Wilson the winner; Roosevelt came in second.
The Progressive Party nominated Roosevelt again in the election of 1916, but he
refused to run. Most Progressive leaders returned to the Republican Party around
that time.
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S61
The Progressive Era: Legacy
• Wilson established FTC, progressive income tax;
also passed Clayton Antitrust Act
• Many reforms remain in place today
• Did not radically change the structure of society
• Set precedent for governmental protections against
unchecked capitalism
The Progressive Era continued through the Wilson Administration and World War I.
Wilson and the Democratic Congress supported a variety of Progressive initiatives,
including establishing the Federal Trade Commission (to protect consumers against
business monopolies), passing the Clayton Antitrust Act (further strengthening
antitrust provisions), and enacting the first progressive federal income tax (requiring
higher earners to pay higher tax rates), as well as passing the Federal Reserve Act.
Many Progressive Era reforms remain in place today, including child labor laws,
antitrust legislation, food and drug safety laws, and worker protections. While many
Progressive laws remain on the books, the level of enforcement has varied depending
on the political climate throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries.
The Progressive Era didn’t radically alter the distribution of wealth or the overall
economic system, as radical reformers had hoped. It did, however, set a precedent for
the government to become actively involved in protecting individuals against the
negative effects of unchecked capitalism. The reforms of this period set the stage for
the country to balance economic growth with social protections in the new industrial
economy and society that had been created.
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S62
Discussion Questions
1. What was Roosevelt’s Square Deal?
2. How did Upton Sinclair’s novel The Jungle help
create the Meat Inspection Act of 1906?
3. Why did Roosevelt support the conservation of
public lands?
4. In what way was the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 a
response to the Panic of 1907?
1. The Square Deal was Roosevelt’s name for his package of laws and regulations he felt to
be fair (and “square”) to all people—in effect, the “deal” he made with the American
people to make changes improving equity and fairness. These changes included reducing
the influence of trusts, increased regulation of business, preserving workers’ right to
organize, and instituting eight-hour workdays for federal employees, pure food and drug
laws, and income and inheritance taxes on the wealthiest Americans.
2. Although a novel, The Jungle publicized a range of unsanitary conditions in meatpacking
plants, leading Americans to demand governmental inspection and certification of meat.
When other countries stopped importing American meat due to contamination concerns,
meatpacking companies began to support this legislation as well.
3. He believed the unique American landscape to be central and vital to the American
character and that the country’s finite natural resources were important to its economic
health and global political strength. He also felt that the land belonged to the public, not to
private corporations, and lamented the decline of what he considered the “manly” pursuits
of hunting and other outdoor activities.
4. The economic instability of the Panic of 1907 spurred the government to reform the
country’s financial system. Following the National Monetary Commission’s study of
European central banks, which could inject money into the economy during downturns, the
Federal Reserve Act created the Federal Reserve System (the “Fed”) to perform the same
function (and others) to prevent financial collapses.
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H1
This political cartoon shows
President Theodore Roosevelt as
a hunter who’s captured two
bears: the “good trusts” bear
he’s put on a leash labeled
“restraint,” and the “bad trusts”
bear he’s apparently killed.
Progressivism
Progressivism
and the Age of Reform
and the Age of Reform
Essential Questions
• Why did the Progressive Era begin? What social, economic, and
political factors contributed to the movement toward Progressive
reform?
• How did the issues prominent during the Progressive Era, and the
changes that occurred then, affect the lives of immigrants, African
Americans, and women?
• How did the social and moral values of white middle- and upper-
class citizens influence Progressive Era reform agendas?
• In what ways did Progressive reforms depend on the work of
individual activists? In what ways did they depend on the
participation of larger groups of people?
• What impact did political leadership have on shaping Progressive
reforms?
The Gilded Age
• 1870s and 1880s
• U.S. as world’s main
industrial power
• Industrialists and
financiers formed
trusts
• “Robber barons”
• Criticism of unfair
practices and poor
worker treatment
A cartoon criticizing “robber barons” such as
Gould and Vanderbilt for their treatment of
workers
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H2
Standard Oil and Trusts
• Founded by John D.
Rockefeller in 1867
• Controlled 90% of U.S.
oil-refining and soon almost
the entire petroleum industry
• Other industries followed
his model
• Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)
had little impact for a decade
after its passage
John D. Rockefeller
The Panic of 1893
• Overspeculation during the
1880s
• Banks, railroads, and other
companies failed
• Unemployment,
homelessness, and financial
ruin
• Reform-minded Americans
began to organize
The New York Stock Exchange
during the Panic of 1893
Progressivism: An Overview
• “Making progress”
• A variety of organizations and interests
• Not a cohesive movement
• Three broad categories: social, economic,
and political reform
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H3
Progressivism: State and Local
• Many changes could be more
easily attained
• Local: high schools, playgrounds,
less corruption, better sewage,
beautification, settlement houses
• State: reduced overcrowding,
safety measures in factories,
workers’ compensation, restricted
child labor, minimum wage
• Wisconsin and La Follette
Robert La Follette
Women and Progressive Reforms
• Women became much more
involved in social and political
causes
• Mainly middle- and upper-class
women
• Aimed to increase “moral
behavior” of lower classes
• Organizations such as YWCA
and National Consumers League
A YWCA poster
Muckrakers
• Journalists who exposed
corruption and social
injustices
• Term coined by Theodore
Roosevelt
• Works published in popular
magazines
• Riis, Steffens, Tarbell, Baker
et al.
Magazines like this one often
published muckraking articles
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H4
Jacob Riis
• Photographed and wrote
about conditions in tenements
and factories, and on the
streets
• How the Other Half Lives
(1890)
• Set the stage for Progressive
urban reforms
Riis: From How the Other
Half Lives
Long ago it was said that “one half of the world does not know
how the other half lives.” That was true then. It did not know
because it did not care. The half that was on top cared little for
the struggles, and less for the fate of those who were underneath,
so long as it was able to hold them there and keep its own seat.
There came a time when the discomfort and crowding below were
so great, and the consequent upheavals so violent, that it was no
longer an easy thing to do, and then the upper half fell to
inquiring what was the matter. Information on the subject has
been accumulating rapidly since, and the whole world has had its
hands full answering for his old ignorance.
Riis: Photographs
“Dens of Death”
“Five Cents Lodging,
Bayard Street”
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H5
Immigrants
• Job opportunities and
religious freedom
• Southern and eastern
European and Jewish
immigrants
• Ethnic enclaves in
large cities
• Poor conditions
• Faced prejudice and
discrimination
An immigrant neighborhood, circa 1900
Jane Addams and Hull House
• Settlement houses
• In 1889, Addams and Starr
founded Hull House in
Chicago
• A community center for the
poor
• Offered classes, concerts,
lectures, clubs
Jane Addams
Jane Addams and Hull House (cont.)
• Hull House
workers lived in
the community
• Economic
desperation seen as
the root of urban
problems
• Addams’s political
work
Children outside Hull House, 1908
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H6
Relief Programs and Charities
• Private relief programs
• Charity organizations
• Paid caseworkers replaced volunteers
• Tensions between charities and settlement houses
• Began to work toward common goals around 1900
New York’s Tenement House Act
• Poor sanitation, lack of basic
comforts, fire hazards, and
“moral indecencies” in
tenements
• Tenement House Committee
exhibition
• Tenement House Commission
• Tenement House Act (1901)
• Improved lighting,
ventilation, toilets, courtyards
New York City tenements,
early 1900s
Discussion Questions
1. What arguments did Progressive reformers make
against trusts?
2. Why did Jacob Riis’s work have so great an impact
on the cause of improving conditions in tenements?
3. What did reformers such as Jane Addams see as the
root of most urban problems? What solution did
she suggest?
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H7
Factory Conditions: Taylorism
• Increased automation
• Management consultant
Frederick W. Taylor
• Helped companies maximize
worker efficiency
• Workers and managers
complained of reduced
autonomy
• Did not offer workers long-term
economic security
Frederick W. Taylor
Factory Conditions: Workers
• Growing employment
insecurity
• Fear of injury or death
at work
• Assembly line workers
generally paid by the task
• Women and children
paid less
• Very few African Americans
• Workers began to organize
Sweatshops
• Factories with terrible
working conditions, low
wages, long hours
• Also referred to home-based
piecework
• Garment and cigar industries
• Recent immigrants
• Mostly women and some
children
Cigar factory, 1909
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H8
Child Labor
• 1.75 million under
16 had jobs in 1900
(not including farms)
• Progressives
campaigned against
child labor and for
higher adult wages
• “Mother” Jones and
the Children’s
Crusade
Child coal miners
Child Labor (continued)
• National Child
Labor Committee
(1904)
•Hine’s photographs
• Child labor laws in
Northern states
• U.S. Children’s
Bureau
• Fair Labor
Standards Act
of 1938
Famous photograph by Lewis Hine of a girl
working in a textile factory
The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire
• Locked doors, highly
flammable materials, no
extinguishers, few exits
• March 25, 1911
• 146 people died, mainly
young immigrant
woman
• Led to public outcry,
increased legislation for
safety measures
The interior of the factory after the fire
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H9
The National Consumers League
• Florence Kelley (1899)
• Run primarily by women
• Pushed for fair and humane
manufacturing of consumer
products
• “White Label” program
• Advocated for state and
national minimum wage and
maximum work hour laws
• Muller v. Oregon (1908)
Florence Kelley
The Rise of the Labor Movement
and Unions
• Groups of workers
organized to negotiate with
employers
• Early unions vs. newer
unions
• Industrial unions at the turn
of the 20th century tended
to be more radical (IWW)
• Emerged in response to
mid-1890s economic
downturn
The Pullman Strike (1894)
• Pullman company cut wages, did not lower rents
• Workers joined American Railway Union
• Strike shut down the passenger railway system
• Federal intervention led to violence; 34 dead
• Government broke the strike
A scene from
the strike
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H10
Samuel Gompers
• President of American
Federation of Labor (AF of L)
• Established collective
bargaining procedures
• Stressed worker benefits in
exchange for union dues
• AF of L less radical than other
unions
Discussion Questions
1. What impact did Taylorism have on workers?
2. What was the National Consumers League’s
consumer-based approach toward ending
sweatshops and child labor? Do you see this as
effective? Why?
3. What differences between between older and newer
unions tended to cause tension within the labor
movement?
The Good-Government Movement
• Political machines
• Patronage and the spoils
system
• Progressives aimed to
increase transparency and
honesty in city government
• National Municipal
League (1894)
• Reduced influence of
immigrants and working
class in city politics
“A Looming Tragedy of the Political
Deep,” a 1906 cartoon which depicts
Republican and Democratic machines
as sinking submarines
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H11
Direct Primaries
• Allow voters—not party
leaders or bosses—to
directly choose
candidates
• Robert La Follette of
Wisconsin
• WI adopted first direct
primary law in 1903
Lincoln Steffens
• Muckraker who exposed
government corruption
• Articles in McClure’s
• The Shame of the Cities
(1904)
• Uncovered direct
evidence of graft
• Increased public outrage
Steffens: From The Shame
of the Cities
When I set out to describe the corrupt systems of certain
typical cities, I meant to show simply how the people
were deceived and betrayed. But in the very first study—
St. Louis—the startling truth lay bare that corruption
was not merely political; it was financial, commercial,
social; the ramifications of boodle were so complex,
various, and far-reaching, that one mind could hardly
grasp them, and not even Joseph W. Folk, the tireless
prosecutor, could follow them all.
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H12
Initiative and Referendum
• Initiative: citizens vote
on a proposed state law
• Referendum: citizens
vote on an existing law
• Progressives saw state
legislatures as corrupt
and beholden to wealthy
business interests
• South Dakota became
the first to enact both,
in 1898
Articles of
incorporation for
the California
Good Government
League, which
promised in the
document to
“work for the
purification” of
the L.A. city
government
through initiative,
referendum, and
recall
The 17th Amendment
• Constitution originally had state legislatures
elect senators
• Bribery, corruption, deadlocks in state
legislatures
• Direct primaries aimed to change this method
•“Oregon System”
The 17th Amendment (cont.)
• Little support in Senate,
except La Follette
• Phillips’s The Treason of
the Senate
• Amendment ratified
in 1913
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H13
Discussion Questions
1. What were the main goals of the good-government
movement?
2. How are an initiative and a referendum similar?
How are they different?
3. What did the 17th Amendment provide for? What
were some problems it was designed to prevent?
Women’s Suffrage
• Included in movement
toward more democratic
government
• NAWSA formed in 1890
• More women served as
progressive leaders
• Anthony, Catt, and Paul
• 19th Amendment passed in
1919
Suffragists celebrate the ratification of
the 19
th
Amendment
The Temperance Movement
• Some felt that alcohol
undermined society’s
“moral fabric”
• Supported curtailing or
banning alcohol
• WCTU and Anti-Saloon
League
• Targeted immigrants and
corrupt politicians
• State and local successes
• 19th Amendment (1919)
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H14
Morality “Policing”
• Moral “improvement” for
immigrants, working class,
and the young
• Targeted leisure activities
(e.g., movies, music)
• Ragtime and jazz
• Rules against “immoral”
dancing
• Whites thought new music
tied too closely to African
American culture
The Eugenics Movement
• Believed that those with
“inferior” genes threatened the
nation’s future
• Sought to curb reproduction
by the “inferior” and increase
reproduction by the “superior”
• Supported by many
Progressives
• 18 states enacted eugenics laws
• Waned after WWII
African Americans in the
Progressive Era
• Reforms focused on poor
whites and European
immigrants
• Menial jobs
• Jim Crow laws in the South
• Ineligible for most Northern
factory jobs
• Worked mostly as
domestics or day laborers
A black sharecropper
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H15
African Americans in the
Progressive Era (continued)
• Most reformers middle-
class whites; many
highly racist
• African Americans
forced to organize their
own reforms and groups
• Ida B. Wells
Ida B. Wells
African Americans:
Booker T. Washington
• Founded Tuskegee Institute
• Promoted educational
opportunities
• Allied with prominent whites
• Believed white support was
needed to get ahead
African Americans:
W.E.B. Du Bois
• Strongly against
segregation and
discrimination
• Wrote articles
and books;
published other
blacks’ work
• Challenged
blacks to stand
up against the
dominant culture
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H16
Discussion Questions
1. What were some ways in which Progressives
attempted to improve the “morality” of the lower-
class? Do you see these actions as effective? Why?
2. How did Washington and Du Bois differ in
philosophy as to how blacks could better their lives
and get ahead? Whose approach would most
Progressives have likely preferred? Why?
President William McKinley
• Elected in 1896
• Foreign affairs in first term
• Handily won election of 1900
on “prosperity” platform
• Supported rapid
industrialization and trusts
• Began to change his views
on trusts
• Assassinated in 1901
President Theodore Roosevelt
• Considered a liability by
Republican Party leaders
• Disliked both excessive
corporate power and potential
violence by the working class
• Believed the wealthy had
a moral obligation to help
the poor
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H17
President Theodore Roosevelt
(continued)
• Increased federal
government’s role
in regulation
• Only opposed
monopolies he
believed worked
against the public
interest
• Became very
popular
Roosevelt: The Square Deal
• A package of laws and regulations that he felt to be
fair to all, particularly workers:
– Increased regulation of business
– Workers’ right to organize
– Eight-hour work days
– Pure food and drug laws
– Income and inheritance taxes on the wealthy
Roosevelt: Trustbusting
• Established Department of
Commerce and its Bureau of
Corporations
• Invoked Sherman Antitrust
Act in over 40 lawsuits
• Northern Securities
Company case set precedent
• Hepburn Act set maximum
railroad rates and
strengthened the ICC
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H18
Roosevelt: Conservation Ethic
and Actions
• Saw America’s landscape as
central to its democratic spirit;
natural resources vital to
economic, political strength
• Resources belong to the
public
• Set aside numerous public
lands
• U.S. Forest Service (1905)
• Antiquities Act (1906)
Roosevelt and naturalist John Muir
at Yosemite in Californai
Ida M. Tarbell
• Teacher and muckraker
• The History of the Standard Oil
Company (1904)
• Exposed monopolistic business
practices
• Contributed to public outrage
and support for antitrust
legislation
• Inspired other muckrakers
The Coal Strike of 1902
• May: PA mine workers
struck over wages and
safety
• Threatened coal
availability
• June: Roosevelt ordered
investigation
• October: Roosevelt’s
meeting; no progress
• Public support for
strikers grew
Striking miners
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H19
The Coal Strike of 1902
(continued)
• Morgan’s commission
• Strike ended late October
• Increased union
confidence and
membership
• Set precedent for federal
involvement in strikes
Upton Sinclair and The Jungle
• Published 1906
• Harsh criticisms of working
conditions in Chicago’s
meatpacking industry
• Instant bestseller
• Public more concerned about
meat safety than working
conditions
• Meat sales abroad cut in half
Upton Sinclair
Food and Drug Legislation
• In response to growing
public outrage over
unsafe and unsanitary
food
•Upton Sinclair’s
The Jungle
• Meat Inspection Act
(1906)
• Pure Food and Drug
Act (1906)
A German meatpacking plant
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H20
The Panic of 1907
• A severe economic crisis
• Recession began in 1906
• NYSE plunged by 50%
• Runs on banks
• Knickerbocker Trust Company
collapsed
• Unemployment, bankruptcies
rose; production, imports fell
• J.P. Morgan, others personally
contributed money
J.P. Morgan
The Federal Reserve Act
• Response to Panic of 1907
• National Monetary
Commission
• Federal Reserve Act
(1913)
• Federal Reserve System
• Gave government control
over monetary and
banking systems, in
accordance with
Progressive Era trends
A painting depicting President Wilson
signing the Federal Reserve Act
The Progressive Party and the
Election of 1912
• Taft won in 1908
• Rift in Republican Party
between Progressives and
conservatives
• Progressive (“Bull Moose”)
Party split from Republican
Party; nominated Roosevelt
• Democrat Wilson won in
1912, with Roosevelt second
Progressive Party convention, 1912
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H21
The Progressive Era: Legacy
• Wilson established FTC, progressive income tax;
also passed Clayton Antitrust Act
• Many reforms remain in place today
• Did not radically change the structure of society
• Set precedent for governmental protections against
unchecked capitalism
Discussion Questions
1. What was Roosevelt’s Square Deal?
2. How did Upton Sinclair’s novel The Jungle help
create the Meat Inspection Act of 1906?
3. Why did Roosevelt support the conservation of
public lands?
4. In what way was the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 a
response to the Panic of 1907?
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Progressivism and the Age of Reform:
Backwards Planning Activities
Enduring understandings:
• The Progressive Era was an age of reform that encompassed a variety of social,
economic, and political movements at the local, state, and national levels, combining the
interests of many different groups and individuals
• Progressive reform movements began as reactions to the dominance of large corporations
and wealthy individuals during the Gilded Age
• Popular support for Progressive reforms resulted in large part from journalists and
activists publicizing problems related to such issues as poverty, working conditions,
and corruption
• Being “Progressive” during this era did not necessarily mean being open to equality for
all Americans or being tolerant of different lifestyles; many Progressive reformers looked
down upon immigrants and did not support equality for African Americans
• Progressivism did not change the fundamental economic system in the United States, but
it did set a precedent for government to become more involved in protecting individuals
Essential questions:
• Why did the Progressive Era begin? What social, economic, and political factors
contributed to the movement toward Progressive reform?
• How did the issues prominent during the Progressive Era and the changes that occurred
during this period affect the lives of immigrants, African Americans, and women?
• How did the social and moral values of white middle- and upper-class citizens influence
Progressive Era reform agendas?
• In what ways did Progressive reforms depend on the work of individual activists? In what
ways did they depend on the participation of larger groups of people?
• What impact did political leadership have on shaping Progressive reforms?
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Learning Experiences and Instruction
Students will need to know… Students will need to be able to…
1. The origins of the Progressive Era and
the reasons behind the increasing calls
for reform during this time
2. The variety of reform movements
that occurred during this time and
the specific conditions that led to
these initiatives
3. The impact of progressive reforms on
the urban poor, immigrants, and factory
workers
4. The status of African Americans during
this time
5. The role of women in Progressive
movements
6. The relationship between middle- and
upper-class “moral values” and
Progressive reforms
7. Specific significant reform
organizations and initiatives
8. The role of the muckrakers in shaping
public opinion
9. The role of the labor movement in
overall workplace reform
10. Progressive changes to the political and
electoral systems
11. President Theodore Roosevelt’s role in
Progressive reforms
12. Specific legislation enacted during the
Progressive Era
1. Describe the role of the muckrakers and the
impact they had on influencing public opinion
2. Identify major issues discussed and debated
during the Progressive Era
3. Trace the chronology of developments
related to specific Progressive Era issues
4. Describe differing opinions regarding trusts
during the Progressive Era
Teaching and learning activities that will equip students to demonstrate
targeted understandings:
• Overview of essential questions and basic understandings
• Class discussion of subject matter questions in the PowerPoint presentation
• Teacher introduction of common terms and ideas in the essential questions and related projects
• Provide students with primary source materials from which they will complete the related
projects in the unit
• Students conduct research in groups to be used later in individual and group projects
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• Informal observation and coaching of students as they work in groups
• Evaluation and delivered feedback on projects and research reports
• Students create and present their unit projects
• Posttest made of multiple-choice questions covering the presentation, with one or more
essential questions as essay questions
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Project #1: The Role of the Muckrakers
Overview:
This lesson has students review their understanding of the muckrakers’ role during the
Progressive Era and asks them to analyze muckraking photographs and writings. They will then
consider the perspectives and reactions of people who viewed and read these materials. They’ll
finish by creating magazine editorial pages expressing some of these reactions.
Objectives:
As a result of completing the lesson, students will be able to:
• Describe the role and impact of several muckrakers
• Have a better perspective as to how members of the middle and upper classes might have
reacted to the muckrakers’ photos and writings
• Articulate these reactions clearly in writing
Time required:
Four to five class periods
Methodology:
Ask students to describe the role of the muckrakers during the Progressive Era. They should base
their answers on what they learned from the PowerPoint as well as from other sources, if
applicable. You may use these questions as guidelines for this discussion:
• Who were the muckrakers? What occupations did they typically have?
• Who was their audience?
• What impact did the muckrakers’ work have?
• Why were the muckrakers so influential?
Have students use Internet or library resources to find some of the Progressive Era photographs
taken by Jacob Riis and Lewis Hine. Have them work in groups or pairs to answer the questions
in Section 1 of the Student Handout about two photographs from each photographer.
Have students use Internet or library resources to locate articles or excerpts from articles or
books written by three muckrakers. For each work, ask them to find a section (one to five
paragraphs) that encapsulates some of the author’s main points. Have them read these sections
and answer the questions in Section 2 of the Student Handout. Some examples they might search
for and read online include:
• Jacob Riis: How the Other Half Lives (read the excerpt in the PowerPoint, or find others)
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• Ida M. Tarbell: The History of the Standard Oil Company (read the final three paragraphs
of the conclusion)
• Lincoln Steffens: “Tweed Days in St. Louis” (read at least the first five paragraphs)
• Upton Sinclair: The Jungle (ideally, they’ll read the entire book, but good excerpts for
this lesson include the beginnings of chapters 11 and 14)
Ask students to imagine that they are middle-class magazine readers at the beginning of the 20th
century. They have just read these articles and looked at these photographs. Discuss these
questions as a class:
• How might you react to what you have read and seen?
• What particular sections and arguments do you find particularly compelling, and why?
Ask groups to pretend they are the editors for a magazine that has published the works of
muckraking writers and photographers. They will create an editorial page for their magazine,
including the following components:
• An editorial stating their opinion of the muckrakers’ work and describing the ways in
which they see the muckrakers impacting society
• Three letters to the editor from readers responding to the writings and photographs (at
least one should expresses the viewpoint of someone who disagrees with the muckrakers)
• A political cartoon expressing the magazine’s opinion about issues the muckrakers
have exposed
When working on their editorial pages, students should refer to the notes they have taken in the
charts on the Student Handout. They may also need to conduct additional research on the
muckrakers’ works and impacts. They can search online for political cartoons of this era to give
them some ideas for their own cartoons.
Have them create their editorial pages on folded pieces of construction or poster paper or stapled
8½" x 11" pages. Inform them that neatness and presentation will count toward their grade.
Evaluation:
Use a rubric to evaluate groups’ editorial pages. A sample rubric follows this lesson.
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The Role of the Muckrakers
Student Handout
Section 1:
Look at photographs by Jacob Riis and Lewis Hine, and answer these questions for two
photographs by each of these men.
What is the
name of this
photograph, and
where did you
find it?
What does this
photograph show?
What do you think might
have been the impact of
this photograph?
Jacob Riis:
photograph 1
Jacob Riis:
photograph 2
Lewis Hine:
photograph 1
Lewis Hine:
photograph 2
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Section 2:
Read excerpts from the writings of three different muckrakers. Answer questions about them in
this chart.
What is the
author’s name?
What is the
name of the
written work,
and where did
you find it?
What are the author’s
main points in the
section you’ve read?
What do you think might
have been the impact of
this piece of writing?
Muckraker 1:
Muckraker 2:
Muckraker 3:
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The Role of the Muckrakers Rubric
Criterion: Level 1
(1–10 points):
Level 2
(11–20
points):
Level 3
(21–30
points):
Level 4
(31–40
points):
Group
score:
Student
Handout,
Section 1
Chart reflects
little attention
to the photos,
a poor effort
in considering
their content
and impact, or
is incomplete
Chart reflects
some attention
to the photos
but reflects
inadequate
effort applied
to their analysis
Chart reflects
good attention
to the photos,
with adequate
effort applied
to their analysis
Chart reflects
careful attention
to the photos
and excellent
effort and
insight applied
to their analysis
Student
Handout,
Section 2
Chart reflects
little attention
to the writings,
a poor effort
in considering
their content
and impact, or
is incomplete
Chart reflects
some attention
to the writings
but reflects
inadequate
effort applied
to analysis
Chart reflects
good attention
to the writings;
adequate
effort applied
to analysis
Chart reflects
careful attention
to the writings;
excellent
effort and
insight applied
to analysis
Editorial
pages—
content
Editorial pages
incomplete
and/or contain
very sketchy
or unclear
information
Editorial pages
have all required
components
but lack clarity
and/or depth
Editorial pages
have all required
components
and exhibit
adequate clarity
and depth
Editorial pages
have all required
components
and exhibit
superb clarity
and depth,
reflecting out-
standing effort
Editorial
pages—
overall
neatness and
presentation
Editorial pages
very messy
Editorial pages
somewhat
messy
Editorial pages
relatively neat
but may have
some sloppy
aspects
Editorial pages
very neat;
created with
care and with
close attention
to aesthetics
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Project #2: Progressive Era
“Timeline” Performances
Overview:
Students have already learned about many of the important issues that were discussed and
debated during the Progressive Era. This lesson asks them to review these issues and delve
further into them, finding out about events and developments that occurred with regard to
specific issues. They’ll form groups to conduct this research, and culminate the lesson with
creative skits that describe details of the issues they have studied and the chronology in which
they occurred.
Objectives:
As a result of completing this lesson, students will be able to:
• Identify major issues discussed and debated during the Progressive Era
• Describe in detail six events or developments related to a specific Progressive Era issue
• Cooperate with group members to clearly express details of these events in creative skits
Time required:
Three to four class periods
Methodology:
Ask students to make a class list that includes major issues discussed and debated during the
Progressive Era. You may want to skim the PowerPoint with students if they haven’t viewed it in
a while. Write their list on the board.
Divide the class into groups of four or five. Ask each group to choose one issue from the class
list. Ideally, groups will choose different issues; you may want to assign issues to ensure that
this happens.
Have groups research their issues in more detail, asking them to find at least six events or
developments that happened with regard to this issue during the Progressive Era. These may
include specific problems that arose, writings or photographs, activism, strikes, speeches,
legislation, or anything else related to the issue. If they can’t find six events or developments,
have them choose a more significant issue.
Have students list and describe their six events or developments in Section 1 of the Student
Handout. They should list them in the order in which they occurred.
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Ask groups to prepare skits in which they act out some of the main events that happened
concerning the issue they’ve researched. Allow them to be creative and have fun with this
project, but ask them to make sure their performances accomplish the following:
• Provide a clear overview of the issue (this might be presented as an introduction to
the skit)
• Clearly address six things that happened with regard to this issue during the Progressive Era
• Explain the chronology of these events and developments: In what order did they occur?
In what ways did they logically follow each other?
• Ensure that all students have lines and participate equally
Have groups perform their skits for the class. After each performance, allow audience members
to ask the performers questions related to the issues and the scenes they acted out.
OPTIONAL: As an alternative to the skits, have students continue their research to find
additional events or developments related to this issue. Have them create PowerPoint
presentations showing the main events and developments they have researched. Allow students
to be creative with this activity, as long as they convey the main points. One slide should show
an actual timeline with all of the events and developments.
OPTIONAL (extension activity): Remind students that these issues are not static and did not end
with the close of the Progressive Era. Most of them still have relevance in the present time, and
many are still actively debated today. Have students continue their research to find out what
happened with regard to this issue through the rest of the 20th century up until the present. This
time, the research can be more general; they should choose from three to five main points. Have
them include this information in their skits, or ask them to write essays describing the evolution
of this issue from the Progressive Era until the present.
Evaluation:
Use a rubric to evaluate students’ work. A sample rubric is included at the end of this lesson, or
you may use another one of your choice.
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Progressive Era “Timeline” Performances
Student Handout
Section 1:
Research your assigned issue, and find six things that happened with regard to this issue during
the Progressive Era. Fill in this chart with your findings, listing the events and developments in
the order in which they occurred.
List the six
items on your
timeline here:
Describe this event or development: When did it happen? Who was
involved? What
happened? Why did it happen this way?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Section 2:
Plan your skit, making sure that every member of your group will have some lines and will
participate equally. Write each person’s general role in this chart. Then, as an option, write down
your lines on another piece of paper. Alternately, you can ad-lib the lines, as long as they
accurately get your points across. Your skit will need to do the following:
• Provide a clear overview of the issue (you might present a statement about the issue as an
introduction to the skit)
• Clearly address six things that happened with regard to this issue during the Progressive
Era (act them out in a way that will show the audience what happened)
• Make sure these events appear in your skit in the order in which they occurred, so that
your skit becomes a “performed timeline.” If one event logically followed another, make
that clear in your skit.
Student’s name: What this person will say or talk about:
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Progressive Era “Timeline”
Performances Rubric
Criterion:
Poor
(0–5):
Fair
(6–10):
Good
(11–15):
Excellent
(16–20):
Group
score:
Student
Handout,
Section 1
Chart
demonstrates
little evidence
of research or
is incomplete,
very sketchy,
or makes little
sense
Chart
demonstrates
some evidence
of research;
chart is more
or less
complete, but
answers lack
detail
Chart
demonstrates
solid research;
chart is
complete and
reflects decent
research, but
lacks some
detail
Chart
demonstrates
extremely
solid research;
chart is complete
and reflects an
investment of
time and attention
to detail
Student
Handout,
Section 2
Group worked
together poorly
and did not
adequately
organize their
skit
Group worked
together some-
what poorly,
with inadequate
organization
of their skit
Group worked
together fairly
well, with
decent
organization
of their skit
Group worked
together very
well, with
excellent
organization
of their skit
Performances:
understanding
of the subject
Group’s
performance
reflected a
highly
inadequate
understanding
of the subject
Group’s
performance
reflected a
somewhat
inadequate
understanding
of the subject
Group’s
performance
reflected a
decent
understanding
of the subject
Group’s
performance
reflected an
excellent
understanding
of the subject
Performances:
cooperation
Group followed
directions
very poorly or
was very
uncooperative
Group
demonstrated
some difficulty
in following
directions or
cooperating
Group followed
directions and
cooperated
well, for the
most part
Group clearly
followed
directions and
cooperated
superbly
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Project #3: What to Do About the Trusts?
A Class Forum
Overview:
Taking the perspective of people living in the Progressive Era, the class will stage a forum
discussing and debating what should be done about trusts. Students will play a variety of roles,
for which they will conduct research and prepare statements.
Objectives:
As a result of completing this lesson, students will be able to:
• Have a clear understanding of how different people and groups felt about the trusts
• Understand the reasons for these differing opinions and perspectives
• Clearly articulate a particular perspective regarding the trusts
Time required:
Four to five class periods
Methodology:
Hold a brief class discussion reviewing students’ understanding of the trusts. Use the PowerPoint
as a resource and these questions as a guideline:
• What is a trust?
• What were some of the most influential trusts during the Gilded Age and the Progressive
Era? Who headed them?
• Why were some people critical of the trusts? What arguments did they make?
• What people tended to oppose to the trusts and support antitrust legislation? What people
tended to be in favor of the trusts?
• How did President Theodore Roosevelt handle the trusts?
Write the following roles on the board, and either assign roles to the students or have them
volunteer for the ones they want to play (you will likely have two or three students for each role):
• Wealthy financiers
• Upper-level managers of trusts
• The owners of small manufacturing companies and factories
• Moderate trade-union leaders
• Radical/socialist trade-union leaders
• Immigrant workers
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• Middle-class women
• Social workers at settlement houses
• Members of Theodore Roosevelt’s staff (one person may play Roosevelt)
• Opponents of Theodore Roosevelt
Have students form groups based on their assigned roles. All the financiers will work together,
and all the social workers will form another group, etc.
Ask groups to brainstorm some of the things they, in their roles, might have said and felt
regarding what should be done about the trusts. Encourage them to think critically about the
potentially conflicting views each individual might have held. The question of what to do about
the trusts would not always have been a black-and-white issue for individuals. An immigrant
worker, for example, might have been outraged at the way he or she was treated at a factory
owned by a large corporation, but may have been grateful to have had a job in the first place.
This person might have felt some loyalty to the company while still wanting to see significant
changes made.
Have groups research their roles more thoroughly, using Internet and library resources. They
should answer the questions in Section 1 of the Student Handout to record their findings.
Ask groups to discuss the results from their research and to decide how they will present their
points of view during the forum. They should decide who will speak in which order, and who
will say what. If group members have differing opinions about what their roles should say, they
can express these differences; again, not every individual of a certain occupation or status would
have felt the exact same way about the trusts. Have them write their statements in Section 2 of
the Student Handout.
Ask students to imagine that the different interests they are representing in their roles have
congregated in a community center to discuss and debate their views. (This would almost
certainly never have happened, but it presents a learning opportunity for the class). Hold a forum
in which students share their opinions on the trusts, from the perspective of the roles they have
been assigned. You can structure the forum as you wish, but the following is an example (the
following format will probably take more than one class period):
1. Have each group present its statements. Everyone should say something.
2. As one group presents its statement, the other groups should listen carefully. After each
statement, have members of the listening groups spend a minute or two writing their
reactions to the statement, from the perspective of their roles, in Section 3 of the Student
Handout. Group members should collaborate in this process, but don’t let them spend
more than three minutes on this task.
3. After all groups have presented their statements, call on each group to return to the front
of the room and either present a rebuttal statement directed at another group or ask
another group pointed questions about its stance. Group members may refer to their
reaction notes and choose the group that they have the most issues with or questions for.
Allow groups to which these rebuttal statements or questions are directed to provide a
brief statement in response, from their seats.
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4. Once each group has had a chance to make a reaction and rebuttal statement, end the
forum with a class vote as to whether the trusts should be “busted” or left alone. Students
should first vote from their roles’ perspectives, but they may take a second vote voicing
their personal opinions.
Students may incorporate costumes and props to help make the forum more fun.
After the reenactment, hold a class discussion reviewing the main issues that came up for each of
the groups involved.
Evaluation:
Use a rubric to evaluate students’ preparation for and participation in the forum. See the sample
rubric provided after this lesson. It may either be used as is or adapted as needed.
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What to Do About the Trusts? A Class Forum
Student Handout
Section 1:
Conduct research about your assigned role to find out the answers to the questions below. Write
your answers in the space provided.
1. What is the name of your group?
2. How would members of your group have felt about the trusts?
3. Why would they have felt this way? How did the trusts affect them?
4. What would they have wanted to see happen to the trusts?
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Section 2:
Your class will hold a forum in which you will make a statement regarding how your role would
have felt about the trusts and what you would have wanted to see happen to them.
Discuss with your group what each member will say during this forum. Plan your statements so
that you’ll be prepared when asked to speak. Each group member should say something—
ideally, you will each make a different point. If group members have different opinions about
what to say, you may incorporate those differences into your statements.
Record each group member’s planned statements in this chart:
Student’s name: What this person will say:
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Section 3:
Listen carefully as other groups present their statements. Then write your reactions to the
statements, from the perspective of your roles, in this chart.
Group: Your reaction to the group’s statement, from the perspective of your role:
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What to Do About the Trusts?
A Class Forum Rubric
Criterion:
Poor
(0–5):
Fair
(6–10):
Good
(11–15):
Excellent
(16–20):
Group
score:
Student
Handout,
Section 1
Group’s answers
demonstrate
little evidence
of research, or
answers are
incomplete,
very sketchy,
or make little
sense
Group’s answers
demonstrate
some evidence
of research;
answers are
more or less
complete, but
lack detail
Group’s answers
demonstrate
solid research;
answers are
complete and
reflect decent
research, but
lack some
detail
Group’s answers
demonstrate
extremely solid
research; answers
are complete
and reflect an
investment of
time and atten-
tion to detail
Student
Handout,
Section 2
Group worked
together poorly
and did not
adequately
organize their
statements
Group worked
together some-
what poorly,
with inadequate
organization of
their statements
Group worked
together fairly
well, with decent
organization of
their statements
Group worked
together very
well, with
excellent
organization of
their statements
Forum:
clarity of
initial
statements
Group has made
very unclear and
unconvincing
statements
Group has made
somewhat
unclear and
unconvincing
statements
Group has made
somewhat
clear and
convincing
statements
Group has made
very clear and
convincing
statements
Responses
to other
groups
(Student
Handout,
Section 3)
Group has
collaborated
poorly, and
responses are
not thoughtful
or clear
Group has
collaborated
well, but
responses lack
evidence of
thought or
clarity
Group has
collaborated
well and
provided
thoughtful
and clear
responses
Group has
collaborated
superbly and
provided
extremely
thoughtful
and clear
responses
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Forum:
cooperation
Group
followed
directions
very poorly or
has been very
uncooperative
Group
demonstrated
some difficulty
in following
directions or
cooperating
Group clearly
followed
directions and
cooperated
well
Group clearly
followed
directions and
cooperated
superbly
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Progressivism and the Age of Reform:
Multiple-Choice Quiz
1. Who did the term “robber barons” refer to, and who used this term?
a. This was what trust owners called themselves
b. This is the term Progressive Era reformers used to describe Gilded
Age reformers
c. The is the term critics of the trusts used to describe trust owners
d. This is the term muckrakers used to describe corrupt urban politicians
2. Which of the following was not a common urban reform during the Progressive Era?
a. Tenement buildings that could accommodate more people in each apartment
b. New parks and playgrounds
c. Improvements to sewage systems
d. Increased educational opportunities for immigrants
3. Which of the following statements about Jacob Riis is not true?
a. His camera allowed him to photograph dark indoor scenes
b. His work greatly influenced middle- and upper-class opinions of how poor people lived
c. Most of the people he photographed were immigrants
d. He had little experience working in the inner city before the publication of How the
Other Half Lives
4. Which of the following statements is true?
a. Women held only marginal roles in the Progressive movement
b. Women became much more politically involved during the Progressive Era than in
previous time periods
c. Women Progressives were less concerned with morality than with their own
economic interests
d. Women Progressives tended to steer clear of the temperance movement
5. Which of the following was not one of Jane Addams’s core beliefs?
a. That primarily economic desperation caused urban problems
b. That Hull House employees should live in the community they served
c. That it was essential to provide poor people with access to education, jobs, and
democratic participation
d. That primarily individual character flaws caused urban problems
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6. What was Taylorism?
a. A system to maximize factory efficiency
b. A political philosophy adopted by many factory owners
c. A system of urban reform involving tenement improvement
d. A method of improving workers’ collaboration in the factories
7. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a sweatshop?
a. Low wages
b. No concern for safety issues
c. A permanent factory location
d. A requirement that workers produce many items in a short time
8. Which of the following was not a central goal of child-labor activism?
a. To increase adults’ wages so that children no longer had to help support their families
b. To make it illegal for children to work on farms
c. To end factory work for children under 16
d. To increase children’s access to education
9. What was one effect of the National Consumers League’s work?
a. It encouraged progressive-minded people to shop at stores that received a White Label
b. It encouraged workers to strike for increased wages and better working conditions
c. It ended the practice of giving preferential treatment to female workers
d. It appealed mainly to middle-class men
10. Which of the following was a trend in the labor movement at the end of the 19th century?
a. It became more conservative
b. It became less likely to encourage strikes.
c. It became less appealing to immigrant workers.
d. It became more radical
11. How did direct primaries change the electoral system?
a. They allowed voters to directly elect the president
b. They ended the practice of electing candidates by direct vote
c. They allowed voters to directly select candidates for office rather than selection by
party caucus or convention
d. They allowed non-citizen immigrants to vote for the first time
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12. Whose election was affected by the 17th Amendment?
a. The president
b. Members of the U.S. House of Representatives
c. Members of the U.S. Senate
d. City mayors and state governors
13. Which of the following statements is true?
a. Many progressive reformers tied their reform efforts to their hopes for moral
“improvements” in the lower classes
b. White progressive reformers were some of the main proponents of the new ragtime
and jazz music
c. Progressives had little concern with moral issues
d. Progressives embraced African American musical forms as evidence of true
progress for the country
14. Which of the following statements is true?
a. Progressive reforms helped reduce the level of discrimination against African
Americans in the South
b. African Americans commonly worked in factories
c. African Americans had few community support networks during the Progressive Era
d. The Progressive Era coincided with the spread of Jim Crow laws in the South
15. What was one main difference between Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois?
a. Washington was considered more radical
b. Du Bois was more critical of the political system
c. Washington shied away from allying himself with whites
d. Du Bois was more involved with the educational system
16. Which of the following statements about President Theodore Roosevelt is the most accurate?
a. He strongly opposed all trusts
b. He supported violent protest on behalf of the working class
c. He felt it was important for everyone to feel they were being treated fairly
d. He found it difficult to empathize with poor people because he had come from a
wealthy family
17. What was Upton Sinclair’s main intention in publishing The Jungle?
a. To improve food standards
b. To increase the number of social programs available to immigrant workers
c. To see swift passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act
d. To improve working conditions in meatpacking factories
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18. Which of the following statements is true?
a. Roosevelt linked environmental conservation to democracy
b. Roosevelt supported environmental conservation as a way to reduce the practice
of hunting
c. Roosevelt was opposed to the Antiquities Act of 1906
d. Roosevelt was mainly interested in environmental conservation for economic reasons
19. What was the Bull Moose Party?
a. A splinter of the Democratic Party that nominated Roosevelt as its presidential candidate
b. A Progressive third party that split off from the Republican Party and nominated
Roosevelt as its presidential candidate
c. A Progressive third party that split off from the Democratic Party and nominated
Taft as its presidential candidate
d. The conservative wing of the Republican Party
20. Which of the following is not a legacy of the Progressive Era?
a. Many Progressive Era laws are still on the books
b. The federal progressive income tax began in this period
c. The government established itself as an active participant in protecting individuals
d. The distribution of wealth in the United States was radically altered
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Progressivism and the Age of Reform:
Multiple-Choice Quiz Answer Key
1. C
2. A
3. D
4. B
5. D
6. A
7. C
8. B
9. A
10. D
11. C
12. C
13. A
14. D
15. B
16. C
17. D
18. A
19. B
20. D
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